THE SECOND COURSE LANGUAGE. 
THE 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE; 



*jO^ 



OR, 



LANGUAGE AS AN EXACT SCIENCE, 



SUBJECTIVELY AND ANALYTICALLY AKRANaED. 



BY D. H. CRUTTENDEN, A.M., 



AUTHOR AND ORiaiNATOR OF A SERIES OF ARITHMETICS IN TWO 

COURSES; THE FIRST COURSE (PUBLISHED 1849), 

AND THE SECOND COURSE (1844). 



'• I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that by my voice I 
ini2:ht teach others also, than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue." 

I Cor. XIY. 19. 

" If I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be unto him that speaketh a 
barbarian, and he that speaketn" shall be a barbarian unto me." — Ibid, ver II 



RBYISED EDITION. 




870 



NEW YORK : 

PUBLISHED BY J. M. BRADSTREET & SON, 

18 Beekman Street. 

1869. 

Also for sale by J. W. Schermerhorn k Co., 14 Bond St,, and 
BY Booksellek.-^^ oi:xer\lly. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, 

By DAYID H. CRUTTENDEN, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 

Southern District of New York. 

Ee-Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, 

By DAVID H. CRUTTENDEN", 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 

District of Michigan. 

Ee-Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, 

By DAYID H. CEUTTEKDEI^, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 

Southern District of New York. 



McCEEA & MILLER, STEREOTYPERS. 



I^TREF^CE. 



The Works^ composing The AMERiCAisr Series of Text 
Boohs^ are arranged accorclmg to the following Theory — 

In the first place, Knowledge is to be gained; in the 
second place, this Knowledge is to be made useful 

Now the order, in which knowledge is gained^ is ex- 
actly the opposite of the order, in which it is used. Just 
as gaining is exactly the opposite of giving. 

In gaining knowledge, we go from the art to the 
science ; fi^om the object concerning which we would 
learn, to what we would learn about that object. For 
instance ; a new object is fonnd — new being another 
name for the unknoiun — we observe it, and by so doing 
we learn all that we finally know about it. In short, 
knowledge is gained in the order of discovery. 

You will see the order of its development in the 
comparison below, under the First Course. 

To make knowledge useful we go from the science to 
the cu^t Something is to be done. We recall what we 
know about it ; if that be insufficient, we ask aid from 
those who possess either more knovfledge than we do ; 
or, from those who know better how to apply their 
knowledge. A temple is to be built. He, who knows 
how to plan it, what materials should be used, how the 
parts should be shaped and how properly joined, is first 
employed. His is knowledge applied to art^ — useful^ or 
"practical knowledge. 

You will see the order of its development in the 
comparison below, under the Second Course. 

The following comparison may assist in distinguish- 

Kntered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by D. H. Cruttenden, in the Clerk's Office 
of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Southern District of New York. 



lY. 



PLAN OF THE AMERICAN 



ing the Course, by wliicli knowledge is to be gained^ from 
tlie Course, by wliicli knowledge is to be made useful. 



co]^^I^^^I?-ISo:^^. 



1. Tills' Course is in the order of 
discoverij : through it knowledge is 
to be gained, or acquired ; hence; 
it is caUed, The First or Primary 
Course. 

2. The Pediaey Course begins 
with objects ; hence, it also is call- 
ed. The Gbjeciive Course. 

3. This PRDIART or Objective 
Course begins with the part?, 
which it puts together, or "builds 
up:" hence, it is called " the putting 
together'' or Syntlietic Course. 

4. Knowledge contributes to the 
growth or development of mind, 
as food contributes to the growth 
or development of the body. 

5. In gaining knowledge, the 
mind is influenced by the state of 
the feehngs; just as the body is 
affected in its growth by the hght 
and air which surround it. 



6. In the Primary, Objective or 
Synthetic Course knowledge is 
gained in the following order ; 

Pirst. DOINO OR APT. 

THING-S, material and immaterial. 
Anything from which we gain or 
learn ideas, notions or perceptions. 



1. This is the Course, through 
which knowledge is to be used, or 
apphed ; hence, tliis should be caU- 
ed, The Second or Secondary Course. 

2. The Secoxdart Course be- 
gins with the science or knowledge 
of a subject; hence, it is cahed. 
The Si'ljjective Course. 

3. The Secoxdart or Subjective 
Course begins with our knowledge 
of a subject, taken as a whole; 
this it applies or uses in parts; 
hence, it is called,, the ''taking 
apart'' or Analytic Course. 

4. Using knowledge gives 
strength and vigor to the mind, 
as exercise gives strength and 
vigor to the body. 

5. In using knowledge, the ac- 
tiwity of the mind is affected by 
tlie importance, which we attach to 
that, which is to be gained ; just as 
the greatest bodhy powers are ex- 
erted when the end to be securer? 
is most earnestly desired. 

6. In the Subjective or Analytic 
Course, knowledge is used or apjDhed 
in the following order ; 

Pirst. KXOWLEDGE. OR AB- 
STRACT SCIENCE. 

Nomenclature — names or terms, 
abbreviations or contractions, signs 
or svmbols. 



SERIES OF TEXT BOOKS. 



Models, pictures, maps, charts, 
diagrams. 
Second. CONCRETE SCIENCE. 

Nomenclature — names or terms, 
abbreviations or contractions, signs 
or symbols. 

Trutlis — expressed in principles 
or in rules. 

7. Knowledge, gained by the 
Primary, Objective or Synthetic 
Course ^5 not power. It is the 
foundation of power only. It is 
contained in books — in libraries. 
Human beings have it. It is 
passive knowledge. He who has 
it, and does not use it, is simply the 
man of hnoiuledge. 

By the Primary, Objective or 
Synthetic Course, we become men 
of knowledge. 

' To one, ke giveth knowledge by the 



Truths — expressed in rules or in 
principles. 

Second. DOINO OR ART. 

Suppositions or theory, diagrams, 
charts, maps, pictures, models, 
THINGS or OBJECTS. 



7. Knowledge gained by the 
Second, Subjective or Analytic 
Course is power. It is the super- 
structure itself. It is the means 
by which mind fulfils its purposes. 
It is active knowledge. He who 
can use what he knows for good 
ends, is the man of luisdom. 

By the Secondary, Subjective or 

Analytic Course, we become men of 

loisdom. 

" To another, he giveth wisdom by the 
same spirit." 



same spirit. 

Now, in order to enable the pupil to gain knowledge, 
and also to make it useful, the instructions in each lesson 
must be addressed to, and arouse every one of the 
mental faculties, and each in its natural order j 

FiEST, The Ferceptives or Receptives — Sensation, Attention, Per- 
ception. 
Second, The Retentives — Memory, Suggestion, |?) Association. 
Third, The Inventives or Reflectives — Imagination, Ileason, Judgment. 

In the construction of every lesson in these Works, 
the above law has been as carefully observed as was 
possible. 

The above general outline of the plan of " The 
American Series of Text Books," is all that our present 
space permits. Farther details may be found in ^' The 
P]iilosof)]iy of Language^"^ Book Sixth. 



VI. FLAX OF THE AMERICAN 

It is tlie intention of tlie Publishers and of the Author 
to present to the pubhc complete setts of Text Books on 
the different studies, arranged on the above plan, to be 
called •• The American Series of Text Books,'' because the 
plan was originated in America. 

The first of this Series issued, -will be the AVorks here- 
tofore known as '' Cruttenden's Series of Arithmetics,'^ 
consisting of — - 

The Young Pupil's Aritlimetic. Xo. I 

(First Course.) The Objective or Synthetic Arithmetic. No. 11. 

(Second Course.) The Subjective or Analytic Arithmetic. No. III. 

And also the TVorks on Langtiage. by the same Author, consisting of — 

The Ehetorical G-rammar. Part I. 

The Philosophy of Language. Part II. 

These works will be carefully revised and improved, 
and will be re-stereotyped. They will contain the best 
and latest improvements in these Sciences. 

The first Primary or Objective Arithmetic, arranged 
according to the above plan, was " The New Primary 
Arithmetic,'* of which Prof D. H. Cruttenden is the 
author. It was first published in 1849, and enlarged in 
1852. Our present ISo. II., is that of 1852 revised and 
enlarged by its author. A Teachers Copy is published 
containing Directions for teaching Arithmetic objectively. 

The first purely Subjective or Analytic Arithmetic, 
arranged according to the above plan, was '' The System- 
atic Arithmetic," published by its author, in 1845, and 
revised and enlarged in 1850. Our present Subjective 
or Analytic Arithmetic is that of 1850, again revised, 
enlarged and improved by its author, aided by the 
suggestions of experienced and eminent teachers. 

The Ehetorical Grammar or Part L, is a complete 
Primary or Objective Course on Language in general, 



SERIES OP TEXT BOOKS. VU. 

and the English Language in particular. A Teacher's 
Copy is published containing Directions for teaching 
Language objectively. 

The Philosophy of Language or Part IL, is a complete 
Subjective or Analytic Course on the philosophy of all 
Language generally, exemplified, in this Work, in the 
English Language only. It also contains, in Book 
Sixth, a short system of that part of Mental Philosophy, 
pertaining to knowledge. 

The author requests us to say, that all doubts which 
have ever existed in his mind, as to the propriety and 
expediency of arranging Text Books on the above plan, 
have been entirely removed, and his convictions of its great 
value have been fally confirmed by the following means; — 

First The plan of these works has always received 
the fall and hearty approbation of every one who has 
become familiar with it. Among these are numbered 
many prominent and successfal teachers, and other in- 
telligent and sincere friends of Education. 

Second, The best assurance that the plan is good, is 
in the fact, that the later works of other authors are 
gradually approaching it ; some doing this, indubitably, 
by that general diffasion of intelligence on this subject, 
which would naturally lead to this result ; while others, 
it is feared, have used these works, as a model, without 
giving the author any credit for the help they have 
received, even the poor one of quotation marks. 

The author has in manuscript, and hopes to have it pub- 
lished soon, a Work on Objective and Subjective Teach- 
ing, to be called, " Teaching and Teachers' Institutes." 

For further information see the Boohs, 



LANGUAGE PREFACE. 



In this Work, we have attempted to show two things : — 
First^ That the Science of Language is one of " The Exact Sciences." 
Second^ That the Science of Language is neither a human invention 
nor the " Kesult of Human Usages." 

/. LANGUAGE, AN EXACT SCIENCE, 

Thought- Language or Speech is one of God's good gifts to mankir.d. 
He gave Voice or Yocal power to mankind and to certain brutes nearly 
alike ; but to man alone he gave the power of Speech, and this distin- 
guishes him from the brute. Language was created subject to certain 
laws or principles, which no human usages can change ; so that lan- 
guage is correct, when it is used accordiug to those laws, in accordance 
with which it was created, and it is incorrect, when it contradicts those 
laws. In studying, it is necessary: Fird, to observe the essential 
elements of language, or that which the language is used to express, in 
order to find : 1st, what these elements are ; 2d, wherein relations exist 
between these elements, and wherein relations between them do not 
exist ; and 8d, what effects are produced by estabhshing relations between 
these elements, or by the unification of these elements. Second, it is ne- 
cessary to observe what relations exist between that which is expressed, 
and the language which is used in its expression — between that which is 
contained, and that which contains it, so that we may always be observ- 
ing and learning in the order of causes and their effects. Thus, we shall 
be enabled to discover those essential principles or laws of language, ac- 
cording to which all constructions of language must be framed, in order 
that the thought shall be correctly expressed ; and again, these principles, 
or laws shall be the true test of the correctness or accuracy of a given 
expression. That is, the one possessing a knowledge of these principles, 
would prove or disprove a given expression, by showing that it correctly 



LANGUAGE PEEFACE. 9 

or incorrectly expresses the thought which it was constructed to express ; 
just as the correctness of a miithematical proposition is tested by com- 
paring the statement with those quantities and their relations which the 
statement was intended to express, instead of quoting what mathematical 
writers have said upon that subject. Thus, no one attempts to disprove 
the assertion "three times two are seven," by quoting what the commu- 
nity generally, and what A, B, C, and all other mathematical writers 
have said on that subject ; because, by a shorter and more positive proof, 
he may take three times two of those quantities which are equal to six of 
those quantities. Just so, the correctness or the incorrectness of any 
expression of a human thought may be shown, by comparing it with its 
thought or essential element. This is the true test, whether it be in ac- 
cordiince with the usage of a community, or be not in accordance with 
that usage ; whether it be asserted, or it be contradicted by all the au- 
thors who have written on that subject. 

Language, hke all God's other works, must exhibit every sign of that 
order which its all-wise Creator, the God of order, could impress upon it. 

11. LANGUAGE NOT THE RESULT OF HUMAN USAGE. 

If language be the result of human usage, that is, if the essential laws 
of language can be changed and modified by human will, then human 
usages are superior to the power which created and established the essen- 
tial laws of language ; but every one admits that many expressions are 
in common use, which are by no means to be imitated, or repeated by 
those who would use the language with correctness and with propriety ; 
and, also, that there are many other expressions which are condemned 
by some and tolerated by others, simply because, some good speakers and 
good writers are in the habit of using them ; and, finally, that there are 
many expressions which are not condemned, although we feel that they 
ought to be, simply because the general principles which they violate are 
not fully understood and familiarly made known. 

THE USE OF LANGUAGE ALWAYS SUPPOSES TWO 
PARTIES. 

The use of Language always supposes two parties ; the Narratcyi^ who 
is the speaker, or the writer, and the Narratee^ who is the hearer, or the 
reader. 

In all cases, the speaker or the writer is the Narrator, whether he 
speak or write, induced by a desire to learn or to be told ; or whether he 
be induced by a desire to teU or to teach. Whether he uses the Ian- 



10 LAK^GUAGE PREFACE. 

guage interrogatively, respviiisively, or historically, he is alike the Narra- 
tor ; while, in like manner, the hearer, or the reader, is at all times alike 
the Xarratee. 

The Language used by the I^arrator, is called the Narration ; while, 
the ideal (idea, group of ideas, or thought), which is expressed by the 
Language, is the Subject or the Logical part of ^/m^ Narration. The Nar- 
ration and its ideal or logical part are the Narrative, 

CONSTRUCTION OR SYNTHESIS THE MOST IMPORTANT 
PART OF THIS SCIENCE. 
Now, the most important part of the Science of Language consists of 
^Aree parts: i^irsz^, that wherein the Narrator is taught to construct the 
ideal or the logical part properly, and to distinguish it clearly, both in its 
elements and as a whole ; Second^ that, for this ideal or logical part, to con- 
struct an expression which shall be rhetorically correct ; and Thirds that 
this rhetorical expression shall be grammoMcally accurate. 

ANALYSIS THE NATURAL RESULT OF CONSTRUCTION 
OR SYNTHESIS 

Whoever is a good Narrator can easily become a good Narratee ; 
since he who can construct or put together skillfully, with comparatively 
Httle study, can learn to analyze or to reduce to parts skillfully. It should 
be borne in mind that the ability to construct is necessarily followed by the 
abihty to analyze, while the ability to analyze is not necessarily followed 
by the ability to construct. 

The Narratee finds the ideal of an exj^ression by three processes ; 
First^ he must examine the expression grammatically^ to find the attri- 
butes or properties of each word, and by means of these, the grammatical 
-class to which each word in the expression belongs ; Secondy by knowing 
the grammatical class of each word, he can determine its rhetorical use or 
office, and by means of these uses or offices, the kind of sentence which 
is contained in the expression ; Thirds the construction of the sentence 
will enable him to discover the ideal or logical value of the expression. 

From what has been said above, we observe that : — 

The Narrator is a logician^ a rhetorician^ a grammarian. 

The Narratee is 2i grammarian^ a rhetorician^ a logician. 

D. H. CRUTTENDEN. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER L— THE ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 



PAGE. 

Subjective Outline of Language. . 16 

Definitions 1 Y 

Mood or Feeling 18 

Elements 19 

Relations of Ideas 20 

Group of Ideas 23 

t^imple Thoughts 24 

Compound Thoughts 27 



PAGE. 

Degrees of Comp. Thoughts. . . .29 
Connected Comp. Thoughts. . . .30 
Complex or Mixed Thoughts. . . .31 

Dependent Thoughts 81 

Independent Thoughts 82 

Mood Language 33 

Thought or Sentential Language 35 
Uses of Thought Language. . . .36 



CHAPTER n.— THE LOGICAL USE OF THOUGHT 
LANGUAGE. 



Subjective Outline of the Logic 

of Thought Language 38 

Definitions 89 

Narrator's Logical Use 39 

To Express a Single Idea, etc . . 39 



Xarratee's Logical Use 40 

The Expression of a Single Idea,40 

Miscellaneous Examples 48 

Examples for Exercise and Analy- 
sis 50 



CHAPTER III.— THE RHETORICAL USE OF 
THOUGHT LANGUAGE. 



Subjective Outline of the Rhet- 
oric of Thought Language . . 51 
'' " continued. .52 

Definitions 53 

Narrator's Rhetorical Use 54 

Narratee's Rhetorical Use 54 

Words 54 

AmbiguouB Words 55 

Synonymous Words 55 

Antithetical Words 61 

Euphony. . . 57 

Definitions 57 

Rule for Natural Definitions 58 

Literal or Nominal Definitions. .59 
Immediate Analysis of Words. .59 
Intermediate Analysis of Words . 60 
Ultimate Analysis of Words. . .61 



Real or Essential Definitions ... 62 
Rules for Real or Essential Defin- 
itions 64 

Nomenclature or Terminology. .67 

Phrases 68 

Formation of Phrases 68 

Antecedent Term of a Relator. .70 
Subsequent Term of a Rela-or. .70 
The Relation of Adjunct Words 

to their Principals 71 

Classification of Phrases 72 

Simple and Compound Phrases. 72 
Dependent and Independent 

Phrases , 73 

Sentences .....,, 76 

Simple Sentences 77 

Word and Phrase Subjects . . .79 



8 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Actively Constructed Sentences. 81 
Passively Constructed Sentences. 82 
Eules for the Selection of Sub- 
jects 83 

Predicates or Affirmers. 8t 

Simple, Emphatic, and Periphras- 
tic Forms 89 

Word and Phrase First Objects. 91 

Kelatcrs 93 

Word and Phrase Second Ob- 
jects 97 

Word and Phrase Adjuncts. . . .101 

Perdonators 108 

Simple and Compound Persona- 

'tors 109 

Table of Personators 110 

Incorrect Use of Personators. .112 

Exclamatives 113 

Compound Sentences 115 

Clauses 115 

Principal, Coordinate, and Sub- 
ordinate Clauses 116 

Simple and Connected Clauses. 117 
Subject and First Object 

Clauses 119 

Second Object and Adjunct 

Clauses 120 

Connectors , 122 

Coordinate and Subordinate 

Connectors 123 

Subordinate Connectors used 
Simply and Correlatively.124 

Relative Adjuncts 126 

Degrees of Comp. Sentences. . .127 
Connected, and Complex or 

Mixed Sentences , .128 

Sentences, Independent in 
Thought and in Form. . . .180 



PAGB. 

Sentences, Depend, in Thought 

and Independ. in Form.. 131 
Sentences, Depend, in Thought 

and in Form 131 

Interrogative Sentences or Ques- 
tions 132 

Eesponsive Sentences or An- 
swers 183 

Historic or Declarative Senten- 
ces 135 

Imperative Sentences 136 

Conditional Sentences 136 

Exclamative Sentences 137 

Ellipsis or Contraction of Sen- 
tences 138 

Contractions of Simple Senten- 
ces , 139 

Contractions of Compound Sen- 
tences 140 

Special Contractions 148 

Syntax of Sentences 149 

Emphatic Elements 149 

Partially Emphatic Elements. .149 

Position of Elements 151 

Transposed Elements , . .153 

Punctuation 154 

Period 155 

Colon, Semicolon 156 

Comma . 158 

Quotation J Dash 160 

Parenthesis, Brackets 162 

Abbreviation Marks 163 

Elhpsis Marks, Leaders 165 

Caret 166 

Reference Marks 167 

Accent 168 

Quantity, Diuresis 169 

Cedilla.* 170 



CHAPTER IV.— THE 



tRammar of thought 

:^UAGE. 



Subjective Outline of the Gram- 
mar of Thought Language. 178 

Definitions 179 

Modifications of Words 180 

Regular, Irregular, Defective, 
and Redundant Words... 182 

Syntax of Words 183 

JSlarra tor's Grammatical Use . . .183 
Narratee's Grammatical Use. . .184 



Etymology 185 

Subjective Outline of the Noun. 186 

Xouns 187 

Proper Nouns 188 

Common Nouns .189 

Subject and Object Nouns 191 

Adjunct and Exclamative 

Nouns 192 

Gender ., ...194 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Means of knowing the Genders 

of Nouns 196 

Person 198 

Means of knowing the Persons 

of Nouns 200 

Number 200 

Means of knowing the Numbers 

of Nouns. . . 202 

Case 201 

Means of knowing the Cases of 

Nouns ,_.212 

Declension of the Noun 213 

Syntax of the Noun 214 

Analyses of the Noun 221 

Subjective Outline of the Pro- 
noun 222 

Pronouns 223 

Simple and Compound Pro- 
nouns 224 

Genders of Pronouns. 225 

Persons of Pronouns ,227 

Numbers of Pronouns 228 

Cases of Pronouns 829 

Declension of Pronouns 231 

Tables of Pronouns 232 

Syntax of Pronouns 234 

Analyses of the Pronoun , . . . . 237 
Subjective Outhne of the Ad- 
jective 238 

Adjectives 239 

Proper and Common Adjec- 
tives. . . 240 

Descriptive Adjectives 241 

Numeral Adjectives 242 

Designaiiv^e Adjectives 245 

Numbers of the Adjective. . . .252 

(.'ases of the Adjective 254 

Declension of the Adjective. .256 
Comparison of the Adjective. .257 

Table of Comparisons 261 

Syntax of the Adjective 262 

Analyses of the Adjective 269 

Subjective Outhne of the Verb. 270 

Verbs 27 1 

Simple and Compound Verbs. .272 
Principal Parts of the Verb. . .273 
Derivative Parts of the Verb. .274 

Transitive Verbs. 275 

Intransitive Verbs 276 

Regular Verbs 277 

Irregular Verbs 279 

List of Irre<^ular Verbs 280 



PAGE. 

Voices of the Verb 284 

Means of knowing the Voices of 

Verbs 286 

Person and Number of Verbs. 287 
Means of knowing the Person 
and Number of Verbs. . . .290 

Modes of the Verb 291 

Unlimited or Infinite Modes.. 292 

Infinitive Mode 293 

Participial Mode 294 

Limited or Finite Modes 295 

Indicative Mode 296 

Imperative Mode 296 

Potential Mode 297 

Subjunctive Mode 299 

Means of knowing the Modes of 

Verbs 300 

Tenses of the Verb 302 

Tense Porms 303 

Indefinite and Definite Tenses. 304 
Means of knowing the Tenses of 

Verbs ..327 

Conjugation of the Verb. , ^ . . .327 
Conjugation of the Verbs, to 

Be, and to Love 329 

Synopsis of the Verb, to Teach . 344 

Syntax of the Verb 345 

Analyses of the Verb 349 

Subjective Outline of the Ad- 
verb 350 

Adverbs 351 

Interrogative, Responsive, Af- 
fimative, and Negative Ad- 
verbs 352 

Intensive and Exclamative Ad- 
verbs 358 

Adverbs of Manner 853 

Adverbs of Time and Order. . ,354 
Adverbs of Place and Degree. 355 
Comparison of the Adverb. . . .356 
Means of knowing the Degrees 

o^ Comparison 359 

Table of Comparisons 360 

Syntax of the Adverb 360 

Analyses of the Adverb 363 

Subjective Outline of the Prepo- 
sition 364 

Prepositions 365 

Prepositions of the First and 

Second Class 36G 

Prepositions of the Third 
Class 367 



10 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Syntax of the Preposition 371. 

Analyses of the Preposition. . . .873 
Subjective Outhne of the Con- 
junction 374 

Conjunctions 375 

Coordinate and Subordinate 

Conjunctions 376 

Syutax of the Conjunction. . . .377 
Analyses of the Conjunction.. .379 
Subjective Outline of the Excla- 
mation 380 

Exclamations , 381 

Syntax of the Exclamation. . . .383 
Analyses of the Exclamation. .385 

Orthoepy 389 

Organs of Voice 389 

Organs of Speech 390 

Phonic Elements of Words 390 

Enunciation, Articulation, Pho- 
nic Syllables, and Oral 

Spelling 391 

Sounds Classified 392 

Orthography 393 

Letters „ 393 

Alphabets 394 



PAGE 

Ideagraphs 395 

Phonographs 396 

Graphic Syllables 398 

Literal or Graphic Spelling. . .397 

Capital Letters 398 

Letters Classified according to 

Sound 401 

Orthoepy and Orthography. . .404 

Syllabication of Words 404 

Rules for Syllabication 404 

Monosyllables and Polysylla- 
bles 405 

Simple and Compound Words. 406 
Primitive and Derivative 

Words 406 

Roots changed for Euphony.. .408 
Saxon Prefixes and Suffixes. . .409 
Saxon Primitives and Deriva- 
tives 410 

Latin Prefixes 411 

Latin Suffixes 414 

Latin Roots 416 

Greek Prefixes 417 

Greek Roots 418 

Latin and Greek Numerals. . . .419' 



CHAPTER v.— ORNAMENTAL RHETORIC. 



Ornamental Rhetoric. 421 

Grammatical Figures 421 

Figures of Etymology 422 

Figures of Syntax 422 

Rhetorical Figures 423 

Plain and Figurative Language. 424 

Figures 426 

Use of Figures. 428 

Tropes or Figure of Words. . . .430 

Figures of Thought 430 

Figures of Comparison, Simile, 
Metaphor, Antithesis, In- 
terrogation, Irony, Allu- 
sion, and Allegory 431 

Figures of Association, Enumer- 
ation, Climax, Metonymy, 
Synecdoche, Imitation, 
Omission, Repetition, and 

Sorites 438 

Figures of Imagination, Excla- 
mation, Vision, Personifi- 
cation, Apostrophe, Hyper- 
bole 441 



General Rules for Figures 443 

Exercise 446 

Rhetorical Composition 447 

Quahfications for Composing .448 

Genius 449 

Taste 449 

Standard of Taste 450 

Causes of Sublime E (notions. . .451 

Sublimity in Writing 452 

Emotions of the Beautiful 453 

Beauty in Composition 456 

Melody, Harmony, Wit, Hu- 
mor 457 

Pathos 458 

Idioms 459 

Dialect. . . , 459 

Style 460 

Grecian and Modern Style. . . .463 

Perspicuity, Ornament 464 

Purity 465 

Propriety 466 

Precision 467 

Synonyms 468 



CONTENTS. 



11 



PAGE. 

Clearness 47 1 

Strength 472 

Euphony 478 

Unity 475 

Ornament 476 

Foimation of a good Style. . . .477 
Prose and Verse Compositions. 480 

Rhyme 480 

Blank Verse 481 

Versification 481 

Measures Primary and Second- 
ary 482 

Epic Poetry 485 



PAGE. 

Examples of Notes and Let- 
ters 493 

Historical Writings, etc 495 

Rules for Introduction 499 

Rules for Reasoning 501 

Rules for Appeals to Passions. 602 
Rules for a Conclusion. ..... .5()3 

Reading or Delivery 504 

The Management of the Voice .505 

Gesture 507 

Origin of the English Lan- 
guage 508 

Extracts for Exercise 519 



CHAPTER VI.— HUMAN GROWTH AND UTILITY. 



Man, a spiritual and physical be- 
ing 547 

Intellectual and Moral Philoso- 
phy 548 

Comparison of Body and Spirit. 548 
Conscious and Acquired knowl- 
edge 549 

Origin of Acquired knowledge. 550 
Primary knowledge External 

and Internal, c 551 

Primary External knowledge. .551 

The Senses 551 

Use of the Senses 551 

Organs of the Senses 552 

Development of the Senses. . . .556 

First Exercise 557 

Sensation, Attention, Percep- 
tion, Memory, Suggestion, 
Association, Imagination, 
Reason, Judgment 559 

Human progress dependent up- 
on the imagination 571 

Intuitive knowledge 575 

Axioms or First Truths, Mathe- 
matical, Moral and Meta- 
physical or Ethical 575 



Second Exercise 581 

Third Exercise 582 

Rational knowledge 584 

Secondary knowledge, or knowl- 
edge from Testimony 585 

Rule for testing Secondary 

knowledge 686 

Laws of Testimony, 587 

Fourth Exercise 590 

Mental Growth 591 

Primary, Synthetic Course for 

development 592 

Rules for the Synthetic Course. 593 
Secondary or Advanced Course. 594 

Primary versus Analytic 595 

Art and Sciimce 596 

Names or Terms and their defi- 
nitions 597 

Truths of a Science 597 

Basis or Classification 598 

First and Second Rules for Clas- 
sification 599 

Principles and Rules 600 

Fifth Exercise 601 

General Remarks 603 



16 



SUBJECTIVE OUTLINE OF LAKGUAGE. 






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'IT-nY.l^'^VI 



LANGUAGE, 

SUBJECTIVELY AND ANALYTIOALLT 
PEESENTED. 



CHAPTEE I. 

1. The Science of Language includes the Definitions, 
the General Nomenclature, and the Classification of 
Language. 

L Definitions. 

r The word, language^^ means some- 
98. Firstj the Definitions. ) f^^i'^^g 'made or done by the tongue. 

I The term, Langiuag-e, is the 
name given to any means hj which our moods or feelings, and 
our thoughts^ are expressed^ and, also, to the science and art of 
expressing them, 

Note I. "Why the term, language (tongue), is applied to all means 
by which our feelings and thoughts are made known, seems strange, 
when we consider how little the tongue, in comparison with other 
parts of the body, is used in expressing our feelings ; and, also, that 
the tongue is used neither in sign language nor in written or recorded 
language. 

But, when we consider the importance and necessity of the tongue 
in the enunciation and articulation of the sounds in spoken language, 
the origin of the term is apparent. 

In the Bible, the term, tongice, is frequently used in place of the term, 
language. " And began to speak with other tongues as the Spirit gave 

^ Language, e, somethins:; ag=acf, done, made, produced : langu^lingn^'by 
or with the tongue. See Dictionary. Ungual, linguist. 



.8 ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 

liiemTitterance." "And how hear we every man in our own tongue 
wherein we were born." " Cretes and Arabians, we do hear them 
speak in our tongues." " To another divers kinds of tongues ; to 
another the interpretation of tongues." 

Note IL — Every science has its essentials or that of which it treats, 
and the more familiar and extensive the student's knowledge of these 
essentials, the more easily and surely will he master the science itself. 

Thus, the essentials of the science of astronomy are the "heavenly 
bodies" and their relations, and the student's previous familiarity with 
these is the true exponent of his subsequent mastery of the science of 
astronomy. Since Mood or Feeling, Ideas, and Thoughts are the es- 
sentials of Language, it follows that the student's famiharity with these 
essentials, as objects, must be the true exponent of his subsequent 
mastery of the science of language itself. Hence, we present language 
as ah sciences should be presented in a First Course, which is Objec- 
tively or SyntheticaUy arranged, and also in this Second Course, which 
is Subjectively or Analytically arranged. (See G-eneral Preface.) 

The knowledge of the essentials of language which the student 
TYiust possess in commencing the study of this work, is given in this 
chapter, under the head of G-eneral Nomenclature. The author, how- 
ever, ad^T-ses that the student's knowledge of these essentials should be 
made more extensive ; and, hence, that he either becomes famihar with 
Chap. YI. before commencing this chapter, or that he has daily lessons 
in both until Chap. YI. is made familiar. While preparing their lessons, 
students should be directed to make themselves familiar with thoso 
paragraphs in Chap. YI., to which references are made in the preceding 
chapters. 

IL General Nomenclature. 

S. Second^ the General Nomenclature. The Names or 
Terms, used in Language generally, belong to the essentials 
of Language or to that which Language is used to express. 
They are ; first, Mood or Feeling^ Passion^ Emotion ; second, 
Element^ Idea^ Notion or Perception^ Relation of Ideas ^ Group 
of Ideas, Thought. 

Mood or Feeling. 

4. The word, mood, means that which moves, excites. 

The word, feeling,^ means continuing to move. 

Mood or Feeling is the name for a state or a condition of 
the mind. 

Thus, we speak of a person as being in a pleasant or joyous mood, 
an unpleasant or sad mood, in an ordinary mood, in an extraordinary 
mood, &c. ; pleasant feelings, sad feelings, &c. 

^ Feeling, ing, continuing ; feel, to move. 



FEELING, PASSION, EMOTION. 19 

5. Tlie word, passion,^ means the state of receiving. 

The term^ Passion, is used to name a strong mood^ feeling or 
desire for receiving or for possessing. 

Thus, Love is the soul's intense desire. He that has a passion- 
ate desire for strong drink must curb this passion. 

0. The word, emotion^ means moving out 

The term^ Emotion, is used to name a strong mood., feeling 
or desire for imparting or giving. 

Thus, emotions of pity lead to deeds of charity. Moved by hatred 
or revenge, we do evil to others. 

Note III. The terms. Passion, Emotion, are frequently used the one 
for the other ; thus, the passion, love, is sometimes called an Emotion, 
while the emotion, anger, is sometimes called a Passion. 

Exercise I. 

Let each student read, and then answer, one of the following questions. 
If apart only of a question he given, let the student supply the omitted part 

1. Have you ever been in an angry mood? Is it an agreeable or 
a disagreeable feeling ? Did you feel like getting or giving ? Is anger 
a passion or an emotion ? 

2. Were you ever in a happy mood ? Was it a pleasant or a pain- 
ful feeling ? Is happiness caused by getting or by giving, or by both ? 

3. Do animals ever feel angry ? cross ? hungry ? 

peevish ? How does an infant show its happiness ? its 

unhappiness ? 

Elements. 
7- The word, element,^ means a beginning, first part 
The term, Element, is the name for the parts of which any- 
thing is made or composed. 

Thus, the Elements of this book are chapters, paragraphs, periodS; 
sentences, words, letters, lines, and points. 

8. Elements are of three kinds; Ultimate, Immediate, and 
Intermediate. 

O. The word, ultimate,^ means belonging to the most remote. 
Ultimate .Elements are those which are first used, or with 
which the construction is commenced. 
I Thus, the Ultimate elements of this Book are p)oints and lines. 

* Passion, ion, the state of, condition of, oflBice of; s=t, that which ; pas=-X)at^ 
receives. 

2 Emotion, tion.^ : mo = mon^ moves ; e = ex, out. 

3 Element. e?if, that which is ; lent = limn., line ; e = 6x, from, out ; as in Ge- 
ometry, surfaces and solids are bounded by lines ; while the elements of a line are a 
point and motion, (See Arith. Nos. I. and III.) 

* Ultimate, ate, belonscing to ; m, most, very ; ult, remote, first, or last. That iSj 
the most "remote., the xiery ftrst^ or the "very last. See Diet., ultraist. 



20 ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 

10. The word, immediate,^ means thai which is not between. 
Immediate Elements are those from which the structure is 

directly formed. 

Thus, the Immediate elements of this Work are its Chapters. 

11. The word, intermediate,^ means that which is between. 

Intermediate Elements are those which conie between the Ul- 
timate and Immediate Elements^ forming a medium between 
them. 

Thus, the Intermediate elements of this Work are pa/ragraphSf^periods^ 
sentences, words, and letters. 



Idea, Notion, or Perception. 

12. The word, idea,^ means that which is the same. 
The word, notion,^ means something known or marked. 

The word, perception,^ means something which has been taken or re- 
ceived. 

The terms, Idea, Notion, and Perception, are names given 
to the ultimate elements of our knowledge. (See Chap. VI., Ac- 
quired Knowledge.) 

Thus, *' An idea is an image in the mind of something which is not 
in the mind ; just as we see in a mirror the image of something which 
is not in the mirror." 

Relation of Ideas. 

13. The word, relation,^ means that which carries back. 

The Relation of ideas is what one idea has to do with 
another, as belonging to it. 

Thus, when the two ideas, Jane, earthquake, are brought together, 
no idea arises that either has anything to do with the other ; but, when 
the two ideas, little, Jane, come together, an idea is at once suggested 
that the idea named by the word, little, as the inferior, belongs to or is 
related to the idea named by the word, Jomc, as the principal idea, 
and this suggested idea is the idea of relation between them. 



1 Immediate, ate, belonging to ; 'med{i\ middle ; im = in, not. 

2 Intermediate, mediate, ; ter, three ; in, among. That is, themiddle one(f 

of three. So in our word, between;, en, state of; twe^ two, two : te^hy, beside. 

3 Idea: ea, that which is; id, the same. That is, a mental image or picture. 
See Chap. YL, Ideas. 

* Notion. io?i, something, state or condition, office of; (o)t, that which ; n, 
known, marked, existing. (See Arith., Notation. 

^ Perception, ion. ; t, that which, one who ; cep =cap, taken; per, bv, 

through. That is, soonething that has been taJcen by or through the receptive fao" 
ulties. See Chap. VI., Beceptitie Faculties. 

^ Relation, ation, ; I, carries ; re, back. 



RELATIONS OF IDEAS. 21 

So, when the ideas, Jane^ waTks, come together, an idea of a relatioa 
between them is suggested, which is, that the idea named by the word, 
Jane, is the cause (agent, actor, doer) to which the idea named by the 
word, lualks, belongs or is related as the effect (action) ; and that the 
two ideas, Jane, ivalks, are alike important, or belong to the same rank 
or order of ideas. That is, neither is the inferior, and, of course, nsither 
is the superior of the other. 

14. The Eelations of Ideas are classified according to their 
origin, order^ and number. 

1 5. According to their origin^ Eelations of Ideas are of 

three kinds ; Natural^ Incidental, and Artificial. 

16. The word, natural,'^ means belonging to birthright 

The Natural Relations of ideas are those which originate or 
€(row up with the ideas themselves. 

Thus, all ideas of the properties of bodies ; as extension, form, di- 
visibility, inertia, attraction, color, odor, flavor, etc., etc., have a natural 
relation to an idea of that which has extension, form, etc. (See Natural 
Philosophy, Properties of Bodies.) 

Again, all ideas of effects have a natural relation to their causes. 
We can have no idea of an action or state of existence, except as be- 
longing to that which acts or exists ; no idea of the receiver of an 
action unless it belong to an idea of the action which it receives. (See 
Chap. YI., Cause and Effect.) 

\H. The word, incidental,'^ means belonging to that which happens. 
The Incidental Relations of ideas are those lohich originate 
under certain circumstances, as belonging to others. 

Thus, ideas of time, place, position, order, etc., sometimes originate 
as belonging to ideas of that which occurs at a certain time ; hence, 
they have an incidental relation to that which happens. 

1§. The word, artificial,^ m^di^Q something made by art. 
The Artificial Relations of ideas originate in the habit of 
using one idea as belonging to another. 

Thus, between the ideas, day, book, an artificial relation is originated 
or caused by the habit of using them together in the compound word, 
day-book. 

19. According to order or ranla^ Eelations of Ideas are of 

tioo kinds ; Subordinate and Co-ordinate. 

^ Natural al, belonj^inG: to; ur, office of, state of; (rc)^. tliat vrhicli; ??. one 
unit, whole, existence. That Is, beloiujing to that toMch has heen ci-eated or horn. 
See Dictionaiy, Nativity, Nation; also, Arith. No. III., Arithmetical Quantiiies. 

2 IxciDENTAL. al, ; Bnt, that which; cid =- cad = cas, faUs; m, upon, 

amon;[r. 

s Artificial. {i)al^ ; fie =-fae, made ; aH{i\ by human sldll. That is, 

something not created by God, 



22 ESSENTIALS OF LAKGUAGK 

^O. The word, subordinate,'^ means of a lower order or rank. 
A Subordinate Relation is the relation of an idea of a lower^ 
to an idea of a higher order. 

Thus, little Jane, in which the idea named by the word, little, has a 
subordinate relation to the idea named by the word, Jane. 

So, mountain top, mountain-top, mountain's top, top of the mountain^ 
in which the idea named by tlie word, mountain, has a subordinate re- 
lation to the idea named by the word, top. Again, an idea may have a 
subordinate relation to a second, which has a subordinate relation to a 
third, etc. Thus, a mtost perfectly matured plan, in which the idea named 
by the word, most, has a subordinate relation to the idea named by the 
word, perfectly, which, in turn, has a subordinate relation to the idea 
named by the word, matured, and this, again, has a subordinate rela- 
tion to the idea named by the word, plan. 

21. The word, co-ordinate,"^ means of the same order or rank. 
A Co-ordinate Relation is the relation of one idea ' to 
another of the same order or rank. 

Thus, Jane lualks, in which the idea named by the word, vmlks, has 
a co-ordinate relation to the idea named by the word, Jane. Fannie 
studies her lessons, in which the idea named by the word, lessons, has a 
co-ordinate relation to the idea named by the word, studies, which has 
also a co-ordinate relation to the idea named by the word, Fannie. 

52. According to the number of Eelations, one idea may 
have a Single Relation to another, or it may have a Plurality 
of Relations to another. 

53. The word, single,^ means without fold. 

A Single Relation is when an idea has hut one relation to 
another. 

Thus, some very small causes have produced very great effects, in which 
the idea named by some, has but a single subordinate relation to the 
idea named by causes ; very, a single subordinate relation to great ; great, 
a single subordinate relation to causes ; have produced, a single co-ordinate 
relation to causes ; effects, a single co-ordinate relation to have produced. 

24. The word. p)lurality,'^ means having two or m,ore folds. 

A ^Plurality of Relations exists when one idea has two or 
more relations to another. 

Thus, Mary rides toward town, — to town, — near toiun, — through town, 
— about toiun, — beyond toiun, etc., in which a plurality of relations is 
caused by the idea, town, belonging to the idea, rides. 

i Sitbordinat'e. 0, state of, conriitloii of; (,a)t, that which [has] ; or din., order, 
rank ; .s-?i&, under, lower, inferior. 

2 Co-ordinate, ordinate,. ; co = con, together, the same, alike. 

3 Single, e, something; ^^=^?, fold; sm == sine, without. See Diet., simple^ 
daiibU 

4 Plurality, iiy, a state, a condition ; al^ belonging to ; ur, more, many ; pi 
folds. 



GROUPS OF IDEAS. 23 

Note TV. For convenience, our knowledge of the relations of ideas 
is sometimes called Idea of Relation. 

Group of Ideas. 

S5. The word, group^^ means many grown together. 
A Group of Ideas is two or more ideas of different orders^ 
hetiueen which an idea of relation exists. 

Thus, very deep Uue colors, in the green field, are groups of ideas. 

36. The Ideas forming a Group are divided into, the 
Principal, and its Subordinates or Secondaries. 

Q'y. The word, principal,^ means "belonging to the first or chief. 
The Principal Idea of a Group is its chief or most important 
idea. 

Thus, in the group, very deep Hue colors., the principal idea is named 
by the word, colors. In the group, standing on the tower, the principal 
idea is named by the word, 



28. The word, secondary,^ means belonging to that which is next. 
The Subordinate or Secondary Ideas of a Group are those 
which are related to its principal idea. 

Thus, in the group, very deep blue colors, standing on the toiver, the 
secondary ideas are named by the words, very deep blue, on the tower. 

Note Y. Ideas are gained or learned by Observation, which, literally, 
means the condition of that which is kept before us. The mental opera- 
tions, by which the relations of ideas and the connections of thoughts 
are discovered, are called Thinking, which, literally, means the action of 
one that creates, guides, arranges. (See Chap. YI.) 



EXEECISE TI. 

1. Name an idea of something which you now see. hear. 

taste. touch. Name a group of ideas . Does the 

word, luind, name an idea or a group of ideas ? Why ? Does the word, 

talk, ? , shoe, ? ,run, ? Do the wor'ls. //'/r/.'.' 

boy, name an idea or a group of ideas? Why ? Do the words, ^-oaie 
other men, ? — , man of wealth, — ' — ? , somelody's looks. 



^ Group, p, many, several ; grou = grow., gro^ying or created together. 

2 Principal, a^, belonging to ; cip == cap, 't^iKen; prin--^f)riin. f^,vst. That is, 
tJiat which is taken first or is themost important. See Diet.. I'rinte, J-rince. 

8 Secondary, a/ry, state of, office of; (t?.)<^, of that which is; sec^sequ, next, 
favorable. 



24 ESSENTIALS OF LAI^J'GUAGE. 



Thoughts. 

29. The word, tJwught^^ means that which creates; or, has been cre- 
ated. 

The term^ Thought, is the name given to tioo or more ideas 
having the relation of cause and effect; o.nd, to comhinations of 
these. 

30. Thoughts are classified ; first, according to their im- 
mediate elements; second, according to their relation to each 
other. 

3 1 . First Olassificatioili! According to their immediate 
elements^ Thoughts are of two kinds ; Simple^ and Com;pound, 

Simple Thoughts. 

32. The word, simple^'^ means without fold. 

A Simple Ttiought is a thought whose immediate elements are 
either ideas or groups of ideas^ having co-ordinate relations. 

33. The ideas, forming a Simple Thought, are of two 
kinds ; Primary^ and Secondary. 

34. The word, iwimary^^ means helonging to the first 

Tlie Primaey Ideas of a thought are those which have cO' 
ordinate relations. They form a thought luhen taken alone. 

Examples. 

Primary Idea. Primary Idea. Primary Idea. 

1. Dutiful children carefully Aeec^ their parent's instructions. 

In example, 1, children^ heed^ instructions, are primary ideas, because 
they form a thought, or make sense, when taken alone, or without any- 
Secondary ideas. 

35. Primary Ideas are of three kinds; known as First^ 
Second^ and Third Primary Ideas. 

3G. The First Primary Idea is the idea of the Agent, Actor, 
Doer, JEJxistor, etc., or of that which causes or produces the action. 
Hence, it is often called the Actor. 



1 Thought. {ou)ght, that which, one who ; th, creates, arranges, guides ; or, [has 
been] created. 

2 Simple, e, something ; 2^1, leaf, fold, plv : »im = 8in£,. without. See single^ 
23. 

3 Pki,maet. ary, state of, office of; prim, first. 



SIMPLE THOUGHTS. 25 

Note I. It is called the First Primary Idea because in every tliought 
an idea of an actor must precede an idea of acting or of doing ; an 
idea of a maintainer or existor must precede an idea of a state of ex- 
istence which is maintained ; that is, an idea of an actor must precede 
an idea of an action. 

2. The ho^ise^ stands near the river. 

3. Vinegar^ is sour. 

4. The sky^ is clear. 

5. Four-footed animals^ are quadrupeds.^ 

In the above examples, the First primary ideas, house^ vinegar^ etc., 
are denoted by the superior, I 

6. The Creator^ gave mood language to all animals. 

7. Mood language was given to all animals by the 
Creator,! 

8. Man^ uses thought language. 

9. Thought language is used by man.' 

10. Students^ love study. 

1 1. Study is loved by students.' 

12. This fine old mansion was built by the king's father.' 

37. The Second Primary Idea is the idea of the Action^ or 
State of Existence, Hence, it is called the Action. 

Note II, The Second Primary Idea is so called because an idea of an 
action or state of existence must always be preceded by an idea of an 
actor or existor. 

13. Boj^^walk.^ 

14. Thought Isbngndige^ distinguishes'^ men from brutes. 

15. (The skilful use of language)' is"^ the greatest of 
human powers. 

In ex., 15, we have a group of ideas, the skilful use of language, used 
as the first primary idea. 

16. Some men are influeficed'^ by reason.^ 

In the above examples, the Second primary ideas are named by the 
words, walk, distinguishes, is, are influenced, and are denoted ])y the 
superior, '^. 

17. Runs he? He runs. Does he runf He does run. 
Is he running f He is running. 

18. Scornest thou these things? I scorn them. Dost 
thou 5cor?2 these things? 1. do scorn ih^ra. Art thou scorning 
these things ? I am scorning them. Are these things scorned 
by thee ? These things are scorned by me., 

2 



26 ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 

38. Tlie Third Primary Idea, is the idea of that ivhich re- 
ceives the action. Hence, it is- called the Receiver. 

Note III. The Tliird Primary Idea is so called because no idea of a 
receiver of an action can exist without au idea of the previous exist- 
ence of an action, and, of course, of an actor. 

19. All students^ (should study )2 thought-language^ dili- 

20. Thouglit-language^ (should be studied)^ diligently by 
all students.^ 

21. J^Iaiy's hoohs^ (were put)^ into her desk. 

In ex., 21, the First primary idea or Actor is understood. Since 
the books were put in the desk, we know some one must have put 
them there. 

22. Wilikrii^ receiyed the money. ^ 

. 23. William^ put^ the money'' into his pocket. 

Note 1Y. Notiae carefully the difference between the receiver of an 
action and th=e teoemev of soniething which is not an action. Thus, in 
the example, WiiiiaM put the money into his pocket, money is the re- 
ceiver of the action, |j?/i ; therefore, the Third primary idea; while, 
pocket receives money, which is not an action ; therefore pocket is not 
a primary idea. 

Hfl. Secondary Ideas are those which are of less imjjortcince 
than the primaries to which they are related. They do not form 
a tlwitght when taken alone. 

24. Dutifvd children carefvdiy heed their parents' instructions. 

In ex., 24, the Secondary ideas are, dutiful^ carefully^ their 'parents' ; 
they do not form a thonght when nS'Sd alone. 

Note Y. A Fri/nary idea with its Secondaries forms a group of 
ideas, of vrhicli the priniary idea is the Principal : hence, we see that a 
thought may )ye comi>05edof primary ideas ouly, or it maybe com- 
posed of groups of ideas. 

Note YL The First primary, with its Secondaries, if any occur, is 
called the First part of the thought: the Second primary with its Second- 
aries, the Second part of the thought; the Third primary, "N-ith its 
Secondaries, the Third po.rt of tJie thought 

Note VII. The First primary idea is sometimes called the p>rimary 
idea in the first part of the thought: the Second primar}'. the pri Diary 
idea in the second part of the thought; the Third primary idea, tliQ 
primary idea in the third po.rt of the thouglit. 

4:0. Simple thoughts are of two kinds; those haying 
first, second and third parts, and those haynig first and second 
parts only. 



COMPOUKD THOUGHTS. 27 

First li'art. Second Part. Third Part. 

25. Columbus discovered America. 

In ex., 25, we have a Simple thought of three parts; first part, Go- 
h/inbiis; second part, discovered; third part, America. 

Third Part. Second Part. First Part. 

26. America was discovered by Columbus. 

First P. 2d P. First. Second. 

27. Birds fly. Some birds fly very swiftly. 

In the ex., some birds fly very sioiftly^ we have a simple thought of 
two parts; first part consisting of the first primary idea or actor, 
hirds^ and the secondary idea, some; the second part, of the second 
primary idea or action, fly^ and the secondary ideas, very swiftly, of 
which, swiftly is related to the primary, fly^ and very is related to the 
secondary, swiftly. 

28. The very best book of all books (First P.) imparts 
to vian (Second P.) the most truly blessed consolations (Third 

Compound Thoughts, 

41. The word, compound^^ means something weighed together. 

A Compound Thought is a thought whose immedio.te elemenU 
are thoughts^ 

Note I. An immediate element of a compound thought is a Co- 
ordinate of another element having the same rank or order ; it is a sub- 
ordinate when compared with an element of a higher rank, and a prin- 
cipal or leading thought when compared to its subordinate. 

42. The Immediate Elements of a Compound Thought are 
joined in two ways; first, hy an Idea of Connection ; second, 
hy using an Entire Thought as an idea only. 

43. The word, connection,^ means the state or office of that which hinds 
together. 

A71 Idea of Connection is an idea caused hy comparing tiuo 
thoughts as to resemblance^ contrast^ or cause and. effect. (See 
Chap, VL, Comparison.) 

Examples. 

F S T + F S T 

1. Men dig the earth and men sow grain. 

» C<wa>ouND. <^ tiiat which [is] ; pmm'=pond, weighed ; com = con, together. 



28 ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 

Ex., 1, is a compound thought formed of the co-ordinate simple 
thoughts, men dig the earthy men soiv grain, between which an idea of 
connection is caused by finding the same first primary idea, Qnen, in both. 
It may be represented by F S T + E S T. 

2. These boys stand and these boys Tvalk and these boys 
run. FS + FS + FS. 

3. Ice is melted by beat and water is evaporated by heat. 
3 2 1 + 321.'^ 

4. The moon moves round the earth and tbe earth moves 
round the sun. 

In ex., 4, the same second primary idea, moves, is found in both simple 
thoughts; hence, the idea of connection arises from the resemNance of 
these two thoughts. 

5. Men build temples and time destroys them. 

The idea of connection, in ex., 5, arises from the resemblance caused 
by having the same third primary idea. X T Z + X Y Z. 

6. The horse was feeding in the field, and the man was 

passing by the field. 

The resemUaace between these simple thoughts is in the secondary 
ideas, the field; hence, the idea of connection between them. 

XoTE II. Between the co-ordinate simple thoughts, the horse ivas 
feeditig in the field, the man ivas passing hy the Iwuse, no idea of con- 
nection arises because they have points neither of resemhlcmce nor of 
contrast; hence, they remain two simple thoughts. 

7. Men lidld temples but time destroys them. 

In ex.. 7. the idea of connection arises from the contrast between 
the second primarj^ ideas, 'build, destroys ; while, in ex., 5, it arose Trom 
their resemblance through the third primary idea. 

8. Sorrow^ comes at night but joy comes in the morning. 
Sorrow comes at night and joy comes in the morning. 

If we compare the simple thoughts, sorrow comes at night, joy comes 
in the morning, as to their first primary ideas, sorroWj joy; or, as to 
their secondary ideas, at nigJit, in the raorning, the idea of connection 
arises from their contrast and we have : — Sorrow comes at night hut 
joy comes in the morning. If we compare them as to the second pri- 
mary idea, comes, the idea of connection arises from their resemUance^ 
and we have ; — Sorrow comes at night and. joy comes in the morning. 

9. It rained yesterday, therefore the plants are growing to- 
day. The plants are growing to-dav hecause it rained yester- 
day. 12 + 12. 



. COMPOUIs^D THOUGHTS. 29 

The idea of connection between these thoughts arises from the sup- 
position that it rained yesterday is the cause, of which the plants are 
growing to-day is the effect 

10. I see that they run. I see them run. 

In ex., 10, the co-ordinate simple thoughts, / see that they run or 
tJicJii run, are joined by using the tliought, that they run or tliem run, as 
the third primary idea of the thought whose first and second parts are 
I see. 

11. Children obey your parents in the Lord, is a divine 
precept. 

In ex., 11, Children obey your parents in the Lord, is a simple thought, 
used as the first primary idea in the thought having for its second pri- 
mary, is. In this thought, the first part exists in two forms; as a 
simple thought, children obey your parents in the Lord ; and, as a group 
of ideas, a divine precept; while the second part is the second primary, 
is. 

12. We wept when we remembered Zion. 

In ex., 12, the subordinate simple thought, tvhen ive remembered 
Zion, is used as a secondary idea, belonging to the second primary, 
vjept ; as, in the simple thought, we wept at that time^ at that time are 
secondaries of the primary, wept. 

44:. Compound thoughts are classified in two ways ; first, 
according to their ivwiediate elements ; second, according to 
the mode of joini7\.g their immediate elements. 

45. First Olassificatioili According to their immediate 
elements, Compound Thoughts are of the First Degree or Pri- 
Tfiary, of the Second Degree or Secondary., of the Third Degree 
or Tertiary, etc. 

46. The word, degree,^ means according to a step. 

A Compound Tliought of the First Degree or a Primary 
Compound Tliought is one whose immediate elements are simple 
thoughts. 

Examples. 

1. You stood and she sat. You stood while she was sit- 
ting. 

Ex., 1, is a primary compound thought, because its immediate ele- 
ments, you stood, she sat, are simple thoughts. 

^ Degeee. e, something ; Qre ^^ gres, a step ; de, according to. 



30 ESSENTIALS OF LAKGUAGE. 

4:T. A ComiDound Tliought of the Second Degree or a Sec- 
ondary Compound Thought is one whose immediate elements are 
either prhnary compounds^ or a ^J)r^ma7';^/ compound with simple 
thoughts. 

2. ''Whoso loveth instruction, loveth knowledge; but he, 
that hateth reproof, is brutish." 

Ex., 2, is a secondary compound, because its immediate elements are 
the two primary compounds, whoso loveth instruction^ loveth knowledge ; 
he, that hateth reproof, is brutish. 

3. "Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou knowest not 
what a day may bring forth." 

Ex., 3, is a secondary compound because its immediate elements are 
the simple thought, boast not thijself of to-morrow, and the primary com- 
pound, thou knowest not what a day may bring forth. 

4§. The word, tertiary,'^ means belonging to that which is third. 

A Compound Thought of the Third Degree or a Tertiary 
Compound is one having one or more secondary compounds among 
its immediate elements. 

4. '"There is [one person] that maketh himself rich, yet 
hath nothing ; and, there is [one person] that maketh himself 
poor, 3^et hath great riches." 

Ex., 4, is a tertiary compound, because its immediate elements are 
the two secondaries, there is that 7naketh hvmself rich, yet hath nothing ; 
there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches. 

4S. Second Olassincation. Compound Thoughts, ac- 
cording to the mode of joining their immediate elements, are of 
two kinds ; Connected^ and Complex or Mixed. 

Note III. For convenience. Connected Compound thoughts may be 
called Connected thoughts ; Complex or Mixed Compound thoughts. 
Complex or Mixed thoughts, because all Connected and Complex thoughts 
are Compound. 

50. A. Connected Thought is one whose immediate elements 
are joined hy an idea of connection. 

Examples. 

1. He rejoiced at my prosperity, and he deplored my ad- 
versity, therefore wdll I have confidence in him until other 
charges against him have been proved. 

1 Tbktiart. (a)ry, state of, order of; t{i\ of that which is ; ter^ third. 



DEPENDENT THOUGHTS. 31 

For other examples of Connected Compounds, see ex., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
6, 7, 8, 9, on pages 27, 28. 

51. The word, complex^^ means folded together. 
The word, mixed,^ means one with another. 

A Complex or Mixed Thought is one in whose formation an 
entire thought is used as an idea only. 
2. We suppose them to he the men. 

Ex., 2, is a complex or mixed thought because the entire thought, 
them to be the men, is used as the third primary idea in the thought, of 
which we is the first primary, and suppose the second primary. See, 
also, ex., 10, 11, and 12. 

52. Second Classification of Thoughts. Thoughts, 

according to their relation, are Dependent, and Independent 

Dependent Thoughts. 

53. The word, dependent,^ means hanging from. 

A Dependent Thought is a thought used as an idea in the 
formation of another Thought. 

Examples. 

1. We saw them catch the horse. 

Tliem catch the horse, is a dependent thought, because it is used as the 
receiver or third primary idea in the Complex thought, we saw them 
catch the horse. 

2. We wept when we remembered Zion. 

In ex., 2, when we remembered Zion, is a dependent thought, because 
it is used as a subordinate or secondary idea in the Complex thought, 
We wept luhen we remembered Zion. 

54. Dependent thoughts are of two kinds ; the Primary, 
and the Subordinate or Secondary. 

55. A Primary Dependent thought is a thought used as a 
primary idea. 

3. ^' I will try to do ^^" has done wonders. 

^^ I will try to do if^ is used as the first primary idea or actor of a 
complex thought ; hence, it is a Primary Dependent thought. 

^ Complex. cc = ^s = cs, that wMch has been ; pi, folded, made ; com == co7i, to- 
gether. 

2 Mixed, ed, state of, condition of; {e)x, that which has been; m, many. That 
"s, one 7nad6 from many. 

3 Dependent. e7it, state of, condition of; d = t, that which ; j^^''^', hangs; de, from. 



32 ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 

4. We knew these sheep to he yours by their ear-marks. We 
knew that these sheep loere yours by their ear-marks. 

These sheep to he yours and thai these sheep luere yours, are used as 
third primary ideas in the formation of the thoughts to which they 
belong ; hence, they are Primary Dependent thoughts. 

Note I. Primary 'Dependent thoughts can be used in place of Actors 
and of Eeceivers. They can not be used in place of Actions or Second 
primaries. 

5G. A Subordinate Dependent thought is a thought used as 
a Suhordinate or Secondary idea. 

5. A man, who holds an office^ should remember that be does 
not own the office. 

Wlio holds an office is used as a subordinate idea in the first part of 
a thought ; hence, it is a Suhordinate or Secondary Dependent thought. 

6. You went to the place in which he resides. 

7. Did jou listen when the teacher was instructing you f 

8. Did the gentleman sit while the ladies were standing? 

9. Can YOU see the tree on which this fruit grew f 

10. Dr. Kane had hopes of reaching the North Pole. 

Independent Thoughts. 

57. The word, independent,^ means 7iot hanging from,. 
An Independent Thought is one not used as an idea in the 
formation of another thought. 

Examples. 

1. Roses bloom in the summer time. 

This is an independent thought because it is not used as an idea in the 
formation of another thought. 

Note I. A simple thought, used alone, can not be Dependent for, 
according to the definition, a Dependent must always be an element of a 
mixed compound thought ; and, for the same reason, a compound 
thought, used alone, can not be Dependent. 

2. Some men build houses and other men live in them. 

In ex., 2, some men huild houses, is independent, because it is not used 
as an idea in the formation of another thought ; for the same reason, 
other men live in them, is independent, and, for the same reason also, the 
compound thought is independent. 

' Independent, dependent^ ; in, not 



CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE. 33 

Note II. The immediate elements of all connected tliouglits are In- 
dependent. 

3. We saw them catch the horse. • 

The thought, as a whole, is independent. We saw is also independent 
(See 57.) 

Exercise III. 

1. Can you name a group of ideas whose principal is an actor? 
■ action ? What do these two form, when the action has a rela- 



tion to the actor ? no relation to the actor ? Have you ever 

had a simple thought ? How did you get it ? Repeat it. How many 
primary ideas does it contain ? Which of them do you call the first 
primary idea ? Have you any objection to calling it the third primary 

idea ? Why ? the second primary idea ? Why ? What is the 

least number of primary ideas which can be used in a single thought ? 
the greatest number ? 

2. Look about you, and learn a simple thought from something in 
this room. How many parts has it ? From which part is it framed ? 
How do you know it is a thought ? Is it a simple thought, or a com- 
pound thought ? From what are thoughts made ? Does a person think 
every time he says, / think ? Can you learn without thinking ? Do 
you know any one who does not think ? Do infants think ? flow do 
you know ? Does a dog think ? How do you know ? Do boys and 
girls, at school, think ? 

3. Which is better, to think twice and speak once, or to think once 
and speak twice ? to think before you speak, or to speak be- 
fore you think? Which would be the more likely to use a complex 

thought, a little boy, or a wise man? a little girl, or a woman? 

a little boy, or a little girl ? a horse-post, or a pumpkin ? 

an oyster, or a tree ? a dog, or a tree ? 



III. Classification of Language. 

58. Third^ the Classification of Language. Language, 
according to its essentials or that which it expresses, is divided 
into Mood Language or Language of Feeling, and Thought or 
Sentential Language. 

Note I. Many classify Language according to its supposed origin, into 
Natural, and Artificial, designating by the term, Natural Language, that 
which we call Mood Language, and by the term. Artificial, that which 
we call Thought Language. We object to this classification because all 
Language is of Divine origin, and hence, alike, natural. 

Mood Language. 

59. Mood Language or Language o/ Feeling is that ivhich 
is used to express moods or feelings. 

2* 



34 ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 

60. Mood Language consists ; — 

First. In the attitudes or postures of the tody. 

Thus, we have ; the attitude of defiance or defiant posture ; the at- 
titude of supphance or supphant posture ; a haughty attitude or pos- 
ture; a submissive attitude or posture. "The one took the attitude of 
ofi'ense, the other the attitude of defense." 

Note I. The skill of the Statuary is shown ; first, by the accuracy 
with which he can give to a block of marble the form and the features 
of a human body in their just proportions ; second, in the accuracy, by 
which the attitude or posture of the statue and the expression of the 
face, are made to express the passion or the emotion intended. The 
success of the Statuary in giving the proper expression to the statue is 
the higher part of his art, and the exponent of his genius. So, in 
paintings and drawings, higher credit is given for correctness in attitude 
or posture than for correctness in delineation. 

Second. In motions of the hody and. parts thereof 

Note II. Movements of the head and arms are called Gestures ; 
those of the muscles of the face and movements of the hands are caUed 
Gesticulations. 

Third. In the tones of the voice. These, by their variations in 
pitch, in stress or force^ in quantity, and in quality, may be 
made to express all the ordinary moods or feelings, the pas- 
sions, and the emotions, which accompany our thoughts. 

Note III. The three kinds of Mood Language, enumerated above, 
may be used simply as expressions of moods or feehngs and not in 
connection with the expression of any thought whatever. They are 
used by children before they have learned the use of thought language. 

The speaker, while uttering a thought, may express the mood or 
feeling belonging to the thought, by attitudes of the bod}^ and, also, by 
tones of the voice ; while, the reader is limited to the tones of tJie 
voice only. The Elocutionist may appear either as a speaker or as a 
reader. The writer can show the moods or feelings belonging to his 
thought, in two ways; first, 'by the position of the ivorcls in the sentence; 
for examples of which, see Interrogatory, Exclamative, Imperative, and 
Declarative sentences ; second, by the mood or mode of the verb, which 
see. 

Note TV. Every thought is joined to some feeling or emotion, 
hence we have good speaking and good reading whenever a feeling aud- 
its thought are properly shown and expressed. That is, good speaking 
and good reading are the union of Emotional and Thought Language ; 
hence, the utmost care should be taken to preserve the proper use of 
the Emotional, while the pupil is learning to read the Thought Lan- 
guag-e. By neglecting to do this, pupils acquire bad habits, such as 
dravrling, reading in low, monotonous tones, or loud, harsh tones, 
screeching, snuffling, etc., too often allowed during the exercise called 
reading. In most cases, these bad habits cling to pupils through life, 



THOUGHT OK SENTENTIAL LANGUAGE. 35 

or if corrected at all, require years for their correction. The habitual 
reading of the school-room should be good reading or the proper join- 
ing of Emotional and Thought Language. 

Note Y. No necessity exists for giving special instructions for the 
use of Mood in connection with Thought Language in this "Work, since 
these may be found in each of the different Series of Reading Books 
now before the public and, also, in various Works on Elocution by 
Authors, who are Elocutionists themselves. In addition to these, the 
student should study such Works as "Rush on the Human Voice," 
"Ruskin on Art," etc., etc. 



Thought or Sentential Language. 

61. The word, sentential, means belonging to that which thinks, acts, 
perceives. ^ 

Thought or Sentential Language is the language used in 
thinking ; and, alsOj in communicating thoughts. 

62. Nomenclature. The Names or Terms, used in 
Thought Language, are Narrator, Narration, Narratee, Syn- 
thesis, and Analysis. 

63. The word, narrator,^ means one who tells. 

The Narrator ^5 the speaker or writer who expresses the 
thought. 

As, a writer is known as an author, essayist, composer, etc. 

Note I. The Narrator, as a speaker, may be known by several 
names; as, talker, lecturer, orator, preacher, teacher, etc. 

64. A Narration^ is that which is spoken or written hy the 
Narrator, as the means of communicating the thought. 

65. The Narratee^ is the hearer or reader who receives the 
Narration for the purpose of learning or finding the thought. 

66. The word, synthesis^ means the action of puffing together. 
Synthesis is the operation of putting parts or elements to- 
gether to form a unit. 

As, when we form ideas into groups, or into simple thoughts ; and, 
again, form simple into compound thoughts. 



1 Naerator. or, the office of; (aX one who; narr^ tells, describes; {a)tion, 
state of, office of; {a)tee, one to whom. 

2 Synthesis, is, condition of: es==et, one who; th, arranges, creates, guides; 
syn^ sun, together; iilnral, syntheses. See Diet., thesis, hypothesis, pare/ntheHs^ 
etc. 



36 ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 

67. The word, analysis,^ means the action of taking apart 
Analysis ^5 the ojjeration of sejxirating the unit into its parts 

or elements. 

As, when we seijarate compound thoughts into simple thoughts ; 
and. again, when we separate a group into ideas. 

68. Analyses are of two kinds; General^ and Special. 

69. The word, general.^ means Jjelonging to a class or kind. 

A General Analysis is the 2orocess of separating the unit into 
its immediate elements ; each of these into its inwiecliate elements; 
and so on^ to the ultimate elements ; or^ as far as the occasion re- 
quires. (See 90, first example, General Analj^sis.) 

■yO. The word, special,^ means belonging to each one of a kind or class. 
A Special Analysis is the p)Tocess of describing each part with 
reference to the lohole or unit. 

T|.. The Uses of TnouaHT Language. Thought Lan- 
guage is used in three ways ; of which, the first is called the 
Logical Use or the Logic ; the second, the Rhetorical Use or 
the Rhetoric; the third, the Grammaticcd Use or the Grammar 
of Thought Language. 

The following comparison will aid the learner in obtaining a general 
idea of the nature and relations of the above-named uses, and thus 
facilitate his progress. It should be read very attentively. 

In Chapter I.. Language is presented as the medium through which 
we consider or view our thoughts with the •' mind's eve ;" as, a window 
is the medium through which we view objects with our real eyes. 

As there are three ways, in which we may use a window, so there 
are three ways, in which we may use Thought Language ; — 

First To view a landscape lying on the other side of tlie window. 

In doing this, we may be so much occupied with the landscape, as 
to be ahnost, or even quite unconscious of the window, through which 
we are looking. In the same manner, we may use the language as a 
medium, through which to consider the thought contained in it. and at 
the same time to be almost, or even quite unconscious of the language 
itself This corresponds to the Logical Use of Sentential Language. 

Second. We may ^^ew the landscape and the window in their mutual 
relations; as, first, to see how much and what landscape may be seen 
through the whole window; second, to see what part of the landscape 
may be seen through each pane of glass; third, to see what parts of 
the landscape, seen through each pane, are seen through the diiTerent 
parts of that pane. In this case, we consider both the landscape and 
the window, and each helps to define the parts of the other, and tlie 
relations of these parts. 

1 Analysis, u., ; s = ^, ; ly = lu^ loosen, separate; ana., "back, apart; 

plural, analyses. 

2 General, al. belonging to ; er. that which is ; gen, nation, race. 

3 Special. {i)al, ; *i?ec, kind, individual. 



USES OF THOUGHT LANGUAGE. 87 

So, we consider the thought and the language in their mutual rela- 
tions ; first, as to the kind of thought which is expressed by the lan- 
guage ; second, as to what part of the thought each word helps to ex- 
press ; third, what is the use or office of each word in so helping. This 
corresponds to the Rhetorical Use of Sentential Language. 

Third. AYe may look at the window itself, almost without regard to 
the landscape beyond it, and consider its position, size, and form ; its 
fitness for the kind of building in which it is placed ; the number of 
sashes, their forms, and the material of which they are made ; the kind, 
shape, color, and size of the panes of glass, etc. So, we may look at 
Sentential Language, regarding it more than we do the thouglit. AVe 
may consider the number of sentences, their forms, how connected, the 
words composing the sentences and their meanings, fitness, and prop- 
erties or accidents. This corresponds to the Grammatical Use of Sen- 
tential Language. 

Exercise IV. 

1. What is the difference between mood language and the language 
of feeling ? Which is the stronger, the language of passion, or the lan- 
guage of emotion ? In how many ways can you express mood lan- 
guage ? Who taught you the use of mood language ? What do you 

call the language of feeling, used by a hungry child ? by a 

happy child ? Why does a child cry when it is hungry ? Is crying 
pleasant or unpleasant to the hearer ? Is it wise that it is unpleasant ? 
Why ? By whom was crying made unpleasant to the ear ? Are sharp 
sounds pleasant or unpleasant ? 

2. In the play-ground, do children use mood language correctly 
or incorrectly? From whom do we learn to use the language of 
feeling ? Should harsh or smooth sounds be used to excite pleasant 

feelings ? disagreeable feelings ? Do brutes understand the 

difference between harsh tones and soft tones ? If you wished to coax a 

dog to you, what kind of tones would you use ? to drive a dog 

from you ? Do the tones of the voice form any part of mood 

language ? 



38 



THE LOaiO OF LANGUAGE. 



1 



e^ 

W 

o 

w 

&^ 

O 

o 
HH 
dJ 
o 

w 

Eh 



•^ c*., 



^5 5 



Eh o 

_ _ -. o '" 






o - 



•pH ^ C O O "^ rt 



g = 



H 

o 






pq 








^ 
ss 



^ 



CHAPTER 11. 
The Logical Use of Thouglit Language. 

{ The word, logical, means pertaining to the 
1 . Definitions. } science and art of reasoning. 

I The LoaiCAL Use of Thought Lan- 
guage IS that, in which the meaning is mainly considered^ while 
the least attention possible is given to the language itself. (See 
Chap. I., 71.) 

3. Classifications. The Logical Use of Thought Lan- 
guage may be considered ; first, as to the Narrator'' s Use of 
it ; second, as to the Narratee^s Use of it. 

3. The Narrator's Logical use of thought language is 
synthetic, because he both makes and uses an expression ac- 
cording to his desire to express an idea, a group of ideas, or a 
thought. 

To express a Single Idea, 

4. L To express a single idea^ the narrator names his idea 
hy a single word. 

Examples. 

1. Men. Trees. Houses. Plant Some. Their. Around. 

In this example, the narrator has expressed each idea by givinp^ its 
name as a single word. The order, in which the ideas are expressed, 
prevents the suggestion of ideas of relation between them. 

To express a Group of Ideas, 

5. II, To express a group of ideas, the narrator names each 
idea, in an order which suggests the ideas of relation between 
them, as principal and subordinate, 

1. Plant trees. Some men. Around their houses. 

In this example, the narrator has expressed each group by naming 
6ach idea, belonging to the group, in such an order as suggests the re- 
lation between them; while, the order, in which the groups themselves 
are arranged, prevents us from readily perceiving an idea of relation 
between these groups. 



40 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 

To express a Simple Thought 

G. III. To express a simple thought^ the narrator uaust 
name each idea of the thought in an order which will suggest the 
relations hetween them^ so that the narratee may perceive wliich 
are the primiary and which the secondary ideas of the thought. 

1. Some men plant trees around their houses. 

In this example, tlie narrator has named each idea of a simple 
thought in an order which suggests that the ideas, men^ plants trees, are 
primary ideas ; and, hence, have co-ordinate relations ; while, the ideas, 
some, their ^ houses, are secondary ideas, having subordinate relations to 
the primaries. The idea of relation of their houses to plant is expressed 
by the word, around. 

To express a Compound Thought. 

'y. IV. To express a compound thought^ the narrator must 
express each of its immediate elements in an order suggesting the 
idea of connection between them. 

1. Some men plant trees around their houses, and, after- 
ward, take good care of them. 

8. Tlie Narratee's Logical use of thought laiiguage is 
analytic^ because he must use the narrator^ s language as the 
means of finding the idea, the group of ideas, or the thought 
expressed by the narrator. 

The expression of a Single Idea. 

9. I. The narratee may, and he may not^ have the same idea 
suggested by a word^ which the narrator intended to express by 
using that word. 

Examples. 

I. Stove. Brush. Well. Apple. 

Thus, by the term, stove, the narrator may name an idea of an actor; 
as, the STOVE contains the fuel; or, he may mean the idea of an action; 
as, the whale stove the boat; or, he may mean a subordinate idea ; as, 
the STOYE-maJcer 2)ut the STOVE-pipe on the stove. Which of these ideas 
is intended by the narrator cannot be learned by the narratee, if he re- 
ceive nothing but the word, stove, from the narrator. If, however, the 
narrator use the word, stove, and, at the same time, by look, gesture, or 
by any other means, designate the object which he calls, stove, some- 
thing beside the word itself is given to the narratee, which enables him 
to determine the idea intended by the narrator. 

Analysis. Stove expresses a single idea, and may be an idea of an 
actor ; as, the stove there. It may be the idea of an action ; as, the 



EXPRESSION OF GROUPS. 41 

stone stove the glass. It may be a receiver ; as, see this stove. It may 
be a subordinate or a secondary idea; as, stove-QOdl is larger than 
chestnut-coal. 

Tn like manner, analyze brush, well, apple, stone, etc., etc. 

Tlie expression of a Group of Ideas, 

lO. II. Generally the narratee will have the same group of 
ideas, which the narrator intended hy his expression. 

Note I. The narratee will be quite sure to have the narrator's 
group of ideas, if he take, as the principal idea, the one intended by the 
narrator. 

1. In the old stove. Stove to pieces. Stove-coal. Chest- 
nut horse. 

Analysis. In the old stove is a group of ideas, of v^hich stove is the 
principal idea ; old is a subordinate idea, having a natural relation to 
stove ; the is a subordinate idea having an incidental relation to stove ; 
and in names* the idea of relation of stove to an idea not expressed. In 
like manner, analyze the expressions, stove to pieces, stove-coal, etc. If, 
in the group, chestnut horse, the narrator intend horse to be the principal, 
and chestnut its subordinate idea, and the narratee understand chestnut 
to be the principal, and horse its subordinate, he v^ill not have the group 
of ideas which the narrator intended to express. The one being a chest- 
7iut horse, and the other, a horse-chestnut. 

In like manner, analyze the groups, apple-pie, loot-tlach, etc. 

The expression of a Simple Thought 

1 I . III. The narratee will have that simple thought which 
the narrator intended to express, when he perceives what ideas are 
primary ideas, and what ideas are subordinate or secondary to 
these primaries. 

1. The merchant's ships plough the ocean wave. 

General Analysis. In the expression, the merchant's ships plough the 
ocean wave, we find a simple independent thought of three parts ; first 
part, the merchants ships; second part, plough; third part, the ocean 
wave. Its primary ideas are, ships, plough, wave. Its subordinate or 
secondary ideas are, the, merchants, the, ocean. 

Special Analysis. The is a subordinate or secondary idea of the first 
primary, ships. 

Merchant's is a subordinate or secondary idea, related to the first 
primary, ships. 

Ships is the actor or first primary idea. 

Plough is the action or second primary idea. 

The is a subordinate or secondary idea of the third primary, wave. 

Ocean is a subordinate or secondary idea of the third primary, wave. 

Wave is the receiver or third primary idea 



42 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 

ISToTE I. In giving these analyses orally, the first ijrimary may be 
used to mean t\iQ first primary idea; the second primary^ to mean the 
second primary idea, etc. In the special analyses, such expressions as, 
the is a secondary idea of the first j)nniary idea, may be expressed as, 
the is a secondary of the actor, shi2Js. In a written analysis the ab- 
breviations only need be used, omitting the contract periods; thus; — 

The merchanfs ship)S plough the ocean wave = F S T ; F == the 
merchants ships ; S = plough ; T = the ocean wave. 

2. The cavalry galloped over the plain. 

General Analysis. The cavalry galloped over the plain expresses a 
simple independent thought of two parts. F Part, the cavalry ; S Part, 
galloped over the plain. Its primary ideas are cavalry, galloped. Its 
subordinate or secondary ideas are the, the, plain. Its idea of relation is 
over. 

Special Analysis. Tlieis a secondary of the actor, cavalry; cavalry 
is the first primary or Actor, etc. 

Written Analysis. The cavalry gcdloped over the plain =: F S ; etc. 

Note II. Written Analyses may be expressed in full, as above ; or, 
they may be expressed with the use of abbreviations, and thus become 
Formulas. In these Formulas, F, 1, or A^ may represent the First Part 
of the thought ; S, 2, or Y, the Second Part of the thought ; T, 3, or 
Z, the TJiird Part. When a part of a thought is not expressed, it may 
be represented by a small letter. 

3. The patient astronomer studied the stars very diligently. 

General Analysis. Tlie patient astronomer, etc., expresses a sim. 
ind. thought of three parts; F Part, the patient astronomer; S Part, 
studied very diligently; T Part, the stars. Its primary ideas are astron- 
omer, studied, stars ; its subordinates are the, patient, vei^y, diligently, the. 

Special Analysis. As above. 

■ Written Analysis or Formula. 12 3. 

4. The merchant's ships galloped over the stars. [Non- 
sense. ) 

General Analysis. In the expression, the merchanfs ships, etc.. we 
find the group of ideas, the merchanfs ships, of which shij^s is the prin- 
cipal ; the, raercha/nt's, its subordinates or secondaries. The second group 
is gcdloped over the stars, of which galloped is the principal ; stars is the 
subordinate of galloped ; the is the subordinate of stars : and over is the 
idea of relation between stars and galloped. These groups of ideas, 
taken together, do not form a thought, because between the merchants 
ships and galloped over the stars, no idea of relation exists ; hence, the 
attempt to bring them together becomes nonsense. 

5. Dutiful children carefully heed their parents' instructions. 

6. Princes often feel anxious cares. 

7. A'm I Joseph? I am Joseph. F S. 

General Analysis. Am I Joseph 1, I am Joseph, expresses a sim, 
ind. thought of two parts; F, I, Joseiph; S, am. 



EXPRESSION OF SIMPLE THOUGHTS. 43 

Special Analysis. I, Joseph^ first primary idea ; am, second primary 
idea. No secondary ideas. 

8. Are acids sour? Acids are sour. 

General Analysis. Are acids sour f expresses a sim. ind. thought of 
two parts, F S. F, acids^ sour; S, are. 

Special Analysis. Acids ^ first primary idea ; are, second primary 
sour^ secondary of first primary, acids. 

Note III. In such thoughts as, acids are sour^ some authors very 
improperly place sour with are in the Second Part ; the reason given 
being, " for these two words express what is affirmed of the subject." It 
would be well for these authors to re-study their own definitions of pre- 
dicates and of adjectives. 

Query. Is it the are that is sour, or is it the acids ? 

9. To heaven's eternal monarchj pay your loftiest hymns 
of praise, f S T. 

General Analysis. To heaven^s^ etc., expresses a sim. ind. thought of 
three parts ; f, not expressed, the name of the narratee being under- 
stood; S, pay to heaven'' s eternal monarch; T, your loftiest hymns of 
praise. 

Special Analysis. As above. 

10. Horses eat grass. Grass is eaten by horses. F S T. 
T S F. 

General Analysis. Grass is eaten 'by horses^ expresses a sim. ind. 
thought of three parts ; T, gra^s ; S, is eaten ; F, l)y horses. 
Special Analysis. As above. 

11. John put the money into his pocket. 

General Analysis. John put the money into his pocket is a sim. ind, 
thought of three parts; F, John; S, put into his pocket; T, the money. 

Note IY. In the above analysis, money is the third primary idea or 
the receiver, because it receives the action, put; while pocket is only a 
secondary idea in S ; it receives the thing, money ^ instead of the action, 
put. Hence, it is not the receiver of an action. 

12. All animals drink. F S t or X Y z. 

General Analysis. All animals drink is a thought of three parts ; P, 
<ill animals ; S, drink ; t, third part or receiver, understood. It is plain 
that if all animals drink, they must drink something. 

13. The fine black horse easily drew the elegant carriage 
up the hill. James writes his words neatly with a good steel 
pen. They were bound with strong cords to the large trees 
by their captors. The wind strikes the sails. The sails are 
struck hj the wind. The plough heaved up the land. The 



44 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 

plough upheaved the land. The land was heaved up hj the 
plough. The land was upheaved by the plough. 

The expression of a Connected Compound Thought. 

IS. lY. Ttte narratee will have the connected compound 
thought which the narrator intended to express^ when he perceives 
that the expression contains a thought whose immediate elements 
are thoughts joined hy an idea of connection. 

1. The sun shines brightly and the birds sing gayly. 

General Analysis. The sun shines, etc.^ expresses a primary con- 
nected thought, because its immediate elements are the simple thoughts, 
the sun shines brightly, the birds sing gayly, joined by an idea of con- 
nection. The first simple thought, the sun shines brightly, has two parts : 
X, the sun; Y, shines brightly. The second simple thought, the birds 
^ZTZf/ gfc?.^??/, has three parts ; X, the birds; Y, sing gayly ; z, third part 
understood. If they sing, they must sing something. 

Special Analysis. TJie, secondary of the actor, sun; sun, actor; 
shines, action; brightly, sec. of sec. primary; and,, an idea of con- 
nection; etc. 

2. He awoke, but he did not arise. 

3. The child sleeps because the mother sings. 

4. You will like the Formulas because they are simple. 

5. The harvest is gathered, [and] the summer has gone, 
and again we rejoice in the scent of the corn. 

6. Men live and men die, but God lives forever. 

General Analysis. Men live, etc., is a secondary connected thought, 
whose immediate elements are the primary compound thought, me7i live 
a7id men die, and the simple thought, God lives forever, joined by the 
idea of connection, but. Of these, the primary comp. has, for its im- 
mediate elements, the simple thoughts, me^n live, men die, joined by the 
idea of connecti^Dn, anid. The simple thought, men live, has two parts. 
F, men; S, live. The simple thought, men die, has two parts, F, men; 
S. die. The simple thought, God lives forever, has two parts, F, God ; 
S, lives forever. 

Special Analysis. Here let the students give the special analysis. 

7. We perceived the enemy on our right, and the river on 
our left, therefore we halted and prepared for the charge. 

The expression of a Complex or Mixed Corapound Thought. 

1 3. V. The narratee loill have the complex or mixed thought 
which the narrator intended to express, when he perceives that owe 
thought has in itself another thought used as an idea only. 

1. Whatsoever thing God doeth, abideth. 



EXPRESSION OF COMPOUND THOUGHTS. 45 

General Analysis. Whatsoever thing, etc., is a complex or mixed 
(compound) thought of two parts. X, Whatsoever thing God doeth; Y, 
ubideth. X contains a simple dependent thought of three parts. X, 
God; Y, doeth; Z, lohatsoever thing. 

That is, the simple thought, ivhatsoever thing God doeth, is used as the 
Srst primary idea of a thought, whose second primary idea is abideth. 

Formula. Whatsoever thing God doeth, abideth = X Y — ■ Y. 

X Y Z 

2. I see them [to] run. X Y Z = X Y ^.. 

General Analysis. X, ■/; Y, see; Z, them [to] run. But Z = X Y. 
That is, X, them; Y, [to] run. 

3» Your uncle, who was here to-day^ will be here to- 
morrow. 

General Analysis. The expression, your uncle, etc., contains a com- 
plex or mixed thought, because it has a thought, who was here to-day, 
used as a subordinate or secondary of the first primary, uncle; hence, 
the thought, who was here to-day, is a subordinate of the whole thought, 
your uncle will be here to-morrow. 

F 

Written Analysis, F S = v;- — — — - S. 
F(+)FS 

4. They wept like children while he spake these things. 

General Analysis. They wept, etc., expresses a complex thought, 
because the thought, while he spake these things, is used as a subordinate 
of the second primary, tuept; hence, it is a subordinate of the thought, 
they wept like children. 

2 

Written Analysis. 12 = 1 -— — ^ . 

-^ 2( + )l 2 3 

5. I have returned the book which you lent to me. 

T 
Written Analysis or Formula. F S T =r F S r — - — , 

The expression of a Dependent Thought. 

14. VI. The narratee vjill find the dependent thought ex- 
pressed hy the narrator, if he find a thought used as an idea 
only in the construction of another thought. 

Thus, in examples, 1, 2, of Complex Thoughts, whatsoever thing God 
doeth, them [to] run, are primary dependent thoughts because they are 
used as primary ideas of the thoughts to which they belong. 

Note I. A Primary Dependent Thought is the co-ordinate of tlie en- 
tire thought of which it forms a part. 

Again, in examples 3, 4, 5, ^vho was here to-day, while he spake these 
things^ and which you lent to me, are subordinate or secondary dependent 



46 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 

thoughts because they are used as subordinate or secondary ideas Iq 
the thoughts to which thej belong. 

Note II. A Secondary Dependent Thought is the subordinate of the 
thought in which it is used. 

1. ''Boast not thyself of to-morroWj for thou knowest not 
what a day may bring forth." 

General Analysis. Boast not thyself^ etc., is a secondary connected 
(compound) thought, whose immediate elements are the simple thought, 
ioast not thyself of to-morrow^ and the primary compound, thou knowest 
not what a day may bring forth^ joined by the idea of connection, for. 
They are co-ordinates. The simple thought, boast not thyself of to- 
morrow^ has two parts ; f, {thou, understood) ; S, hoast not [to] thyself 
of to-morrow. The primary compound, thou knowest not luhat a day may 
bring forth, is a mixed thought of three parts; E, thou; S, knowest not; 
T, what a day may bring forth. The third part is a simple dependent 
thought of three parts; F, a day ; S, may bring forth; T, what [thing]. 

Special Analysis. As above. 

T 

Written Analysis. Boast not thyself etc. = f S + E S . Trans- 

it b i 

late this formula as in the General Analysis. 

2. I see her dancing in the hall. 

3. I saw the dog biting the cattle. 

4. Children obey your parents in the Lord, is a divine 
precept. 

5. The sun, arising, enlightened the caveriL 

6. He who fights and runs away, may live to fight another 
day. 

7. We drove the horses into a field, surrounded by a high 

fence. X Y Z zr X ^J^^^ Z. 

General Analysis. X, We; T, drove into a field, surrounded by a 
high fence; Z, the horses. But Y = Y, T X. That is; Y, drove into a 
field ; Y, surrounded ; X, by a high fence. 

8. Did you see the lady to whom I sent the note ? 

9. You knew that he was practising deception. 

10. He who thinks most, lives most. F S =^ ^ >^g^ S, 

11. I found the book, which you lost. 

12. I know that my defense is in thee. 

13. You listened while he sang. X Y :^ X yT+YTYz' 

14. John ordered them to return the hat. 

15. For me to die is gain, but for me to live is better. 



EXPRESSION OF INDEPENDENT THOUGHTS. 47 

TJncontr acted Form. me to die is gain for me, but me to 

live is better for me. That I should die is gain for me, but that I 
should live is better for me. 

It is evident that the whole thought, for me to die, etc., is a depen- 
dent mixed thought, whose independent part is not expressed. It can- 
not be easily expressed in English, but is very commonly expressed in 
the Latin and in the G-reek. (See Contraction of Subjects.) 

General Analysis. For me to die, etc., is a compound dependent 
thought containing two mixed thoughts, for me to die is gain, for me to 
live is letter, joined by the idea of connection, hut. The mixed thought, 
for me to die is gain, has two parts; E, [me] to die, gain; S, is, for me. 
E contains a simple thought of two parts ; f. [me] understood ; S, to die. 
For me to live is better, is a mixed thought of two parts. F, [me] to 
live, letter ; S, is for me. E contains a simple thought of two parts ; 
E, [me] ; S, to live. 

Special Analysis. As above. 

F E 

Written Analysis. For me, etc. = f s T ; but T = tt^ S + 7^ S. 

lb lb 

16. JohE knew that they were the men. John knew them 
to be the men. They were known to be the men by John. 

The true form of the last example is ; Them to he the men was known 
hy John. 

General Analysis. They were known, etc., is a mixed thought of three 
parts ; T, they to be the men [them to be the men] ; S, were knoivn [was 
known] ; E, by John ; of which, the third part, they [them] to be the men, 
is a simple thought of two parts; E, they [them], the men ; S, to he. 

Special Analysis. As before. 

T 
Written Analysis. They were known, etc. — — - S E. 

E S 

17. He is said to have come. Z Y x in ;^ Y x. 

18. John was bidden to run quickly. 

19. I knew the brother of the lady who gave you this 
book. 

77ie expression of an Independent Thought. 



15. VII. The narratee will find tvhat independent thought 
the narrator intended to express ; first, hy taking the entire thought, 
whether it he simple or compound, as independent ; second, hy 
taking each thought, joined to another thought hy an idea of con- 
nection., as independent; third, hy taking^ as an independent 
thought., that part of a compound thought which is not dependent. 

1. Does Joseph, the carpenter, build houses ? 

General Analysis. As before. This example is an independent simple 
thought. 



48 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 

2. Do men dig for wealth, and do they ahvays find it? 

General Analysis. . (This example is an independent com- 
pound thought.) 

3. I will sit here until you return. 

Ex., 3, is an independent mixed compound thought, of which, I will sit 
here is the independent part ; until you return is the dependent part. 

Miscellaneous Examples. 

L The sun shines brightly. The eagle soars toward heaven. 
The girls fed the poor woman. 

2. ^' With streaming blood, the slippery shores are dyed, 
And slaughtered heroes swell the dreadful tide." 

3o "If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise for thj^self; but, 
if thou scornest, thou alone shalt bear it." 

4. The stars fill the immensit}^ of space. 

5. Writing makes the accurate man. 

6. Columbus discovered St. Salvador in 1492. 

7. 'Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog's honest bark 
Bay deep-mouthed welcome, as we draw near home. 

8. The immensity of space is filled by the stars. 

9. All good men will obey wholesome laws very willingly. 

10. Farmers sow grain in the spring. 

11. Can gold gain friendship? 

12. We should brave troubles as the New England school- 
boy braves winter. 

13. Dust thou art, and to dust thou returnest, was not 
spoken of the soul by the good Creator. 

14. Honest men hold that these claims and such as thesp 
are legal. 

Uncontr acted Form. Honest men hold that these claims, and honest 
men hold that such claims as these claims are. are legal. 

15. "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge." 

16. " Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades ?" 

17. Art thou James? I am James. 

18. ''He, that refuseth instruction, despiseth his ovm soul; 
but, he, that heareth reproof, getteth understanding." 

19. May I eat the bread? Eat thou the bread. Thou 
may est eat the bread. Dost thou eat the bread ? Thou art 
eating the bread. Is the bread eaten by thee ? Has the 
bread been eaten by thee ? 



EXAMPLES. 49 

20. We, the people of the United States, do hereby ordain 
the following Constitution. 

21. Blessed with victory and peace, may the heaven- 
rescued land praise the Power, that hath made and preserved 
us a nation I 

22. They named him, John. He was called John. Farmers 
mow. We read. 

23. He was murdered in the woods. It was not told to 
him. 

24. The boat, that refuses to pause in its passage and throw 
a line to smaller craft, will bring no tow into port. 

25. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was 
with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the be- 
ginning with God. All things were made by Him; and, 
without Him, was not anything made that was made. 

26. He that has light within his own clear breast, 
May sit in the centre, and enjoy bright day; 
But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
Benighted walks under the mid- day sun. 

27. So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, that moves 

To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not like the quarry- slave at night. 
Scourged to his dungeon ; but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 

Bryant. 

28. It is to the Union that we owe our safety at home, and 
our consideration and dignity abroad. Every j^ear of its du- 
ration has teemed with fresh proof of its utility and its bless- 
ings ; and, although our territory has stretched out wider and 
wider, and our population spread further and further, they have 
not outrun its protection or its benefits. — Webster. 

Note I. Students should form written analyses or formulas of par- 
agraphs, chapters, etc. 

3 



50 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Examples for Exercise axd Analysis. 

1. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with 
God, and the Word was God. St John. 

2. Out of the ground the Lord God formed eTcrj beast of 
tlie field, and every fowl of the air, and brought them unto 
Adam, to see what he would call them ; and whatsoever Adam 
called every living creature, that was the name thereof 
Genesis, 

3. Adam said. This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of 
my flesh ; she shall be called Woman. Genesis. 

4. Then the Lord answered Job out of the whirlwind, and 
said, Who is this that darkeneth counsel by words without 
knowledge ? Job. 

5. Language, that exclusive possession of reasoning beings, 
that first-born evidence of the immortal, the superhuman, and 
of the Supreme Being, in us, is the greeting of spirit to spirit, 
by which the likeness of our various natures and destinies is 
mutually revealed. ZschoJcJce. 

6. Only by speech is the slumbering reason awakened. 
Only by speech is it that the eye and the ear and all the other 
senses become one in action, and unite themselves Yviih the 
creative thought, which the hands and other members only 
obey. 

The boy born deaf and dumb, who killed his brother in 
mere imitation, when he saw him kill an animal, showed 
strikingly how little capable is man, without speech, of attain- 
ing to reasonable ideas, even while living amongst men, and 
in what a barbarous condition all his mipulses remain. Tierder. 

7. Poets in all ages have in a simple, loving way praised 
speech as the most joyful gift of Heaven ; and cultivated men 
of every clime have deeply felt what a wondrous gift was 
that of communicating thought. Bijjpolt. 

8. Language is the sheath in which is kept the sword of 
the mind ; the casket in v\^hich we preserve our jewel ; the 
vessel in which we secure our drink ; the storehouse where 
we lay up our food. Luther. 

9. As words may be considered the garment of thoughts, 
so may language collectively be considered a picture of the 
soul. Since, therefore, thou findest pleasure in adorning thy 
body, do thou not bestow less care upon thy speech, which is 
the body of thy mind. Zschokke. 



SUBJECTIVE OUTLINE. 



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CHAPTER in. 



The Ehetorical Use of Thouglit Language. 

i The word, rhetorical,^ means belonging 

1, Definitions. ■] ^(^ the science of fluency [in speaking]. 

( The Rhetorical Use of Thought 
Language is that in which the language and its meaning or 
essentials are considered in their mutual relations. 

Note I. A knowledge of the Ehetorical Use of Language is indis- 
pensable to the narrator because it enables him to express a thought 
correctly and, also, to make the expression itself so pleasing to the nar- 
ratee that he shall thereby be attracted to the thought. 

The narrator should be so skilful in the use of Language as to be 
able to express a thought precisely, when he wishes so to do and, also, 
to use language ambiguously or as " an ingenious mode of concealing 
thought," when he wishes. 

jSTote II. TVe must observe very carefully the difference between 
the Logical and the Hhetorical Uses. In the former, we mainly con- 
sider the thought ; in the latter, we consider the Language as the repre- 
sentative of the thought ; hence, in the Ehetorical Use both must be 
kept perfectly in view. 

In the Logical Use, the Language is only a medium, through which 
we view the thought ; in the Ehetorical, each is used to help us in 
viewing the other. 

From what has been said above, we see that the Logical and the 
Ehetorical Uses of Thought Language will necessarily have a strong 
resemblance m certain of their parts. The thought is the gem — the 
kernel ; the language is the casket — the husk. Too often, to the neglect 
of the thought, we content ourselves with the language. Knowledge 
and the power to express it, in fitting language, are an invaluable pos- 
session, but knowledge without language is valuable to its possessor 
only. Language, without knowledge, is merely noise. Said an eminent 
English Statesman, "In expressing my thoughts, I am never troubled 
for a word, but my friend, Mr. Burke, is never troubled for the word." 

2. The Ehetorical Use of Thought Language may 
be considered; first, as to the Narrator'' s Use of it; 
second.^ as to the Narratee^s Use of it. 

i EuETOEiOAL. al, belonging to; ic, science of; rhetor, of a fluent [speaker]. 
The Greek nanie for a ^^.^eaivm^ speaker is Mhetor^ wliicli, literally, means th6 
office of that which flows smoothly. 



54 THE RHETORIC OF LAN(3^UAaE. 

3. The Narrator's Rhetorical Use of thought lan- 
guage is synthetic^ and may be considered in two parts ; 
Constructive^ and Ornamental Ehetoric. 

LiTEEAL Definition. The word, constructive^'^ means that which 

luilds. 

4:. CoNSTRUCTiYE RhetoTic IS the science and art of express- 
ing ideas and thoughts ly the use of Words^ Phrases, Sentences^ 
and the Marks or Signs of Puiictuation. 

ISToTE I. Ornamental Rhetoric includes those means by which the 
expression of a thought is made pleasing and attractive to the narratee^ 
so that he may be led to seek for the thought itself. This part of 
Rhetoric is deferred to Chap. Y., because, the student cannot fully un- 
derstand it before he has become familiar with the G-rammatical Use 
of Thought Language, as presented in Chap. lY. 

5. The Narratee's Rhetorical use of thought language 
is analytic^ because he receives the expression as a whole and 
finds its essentials through its parts. The expression may 
be a Word^ a Phrase^ or a Sentence ; and, when written, 
must also include the Signs or Marks of Punctuation, 

Words. 

Lit. Def. Literally, word,^ means something spoken or uttered. 

G. A Word is the exjjression or name of an idea. 

Note I. We have given above the Rhetorical definition of Word. 
Grammatically considered, a Word is an expression consisting of one or 
more sounds, or oue or more letters. 

Note II. In every language, one word exists which may be used as 
the name of every idea that can be entertained by the human mind. Id 
the English, it is the Y\^ord, thing ; in the Latin, it is the word, nego- 
tiv/ni ; in the G-reek, it is the word, xp^j^^- (chrama). Hence, the word, 
thing, becomes the universal common denominator of the English lan- 
guage, and is alike applicable to ideas of material and, also, of imma- 
terial existences. 

Examples. 

1. Stone. Apple. Love. "Watch. Pound. 

1 CoNSTRFCTrvB. ive, like, having the property of ; t, that which; strnc^ has 
teen put. fixed ; con, together. 

•^ WoED. d = t, that which, one who ; war = 'cer == der or bar, speak, cry, bawL 



WOEDS, AMBIGUOUS, SYNONYMOUS. 55 

Analysis. Stone is a word^ because it expresses or names an idea. 
MTiat particular idea is expressed by it here, we do not know, because 
there is no circumstance which hmits it. It may be the name of a 
primary idea ; as, the stone hes on the ground ; take up that stone and 
stone the cattle. It may be used as a secondary idea ; as a stone waU ; 
hit ^\dth a stone; a stone color; a stone hammer; rich in precious stones; 
a stone weight of meat. 

Note III. When a word is used alone, it generally suggests several 
ideas ; because, under different circumstances, it is used to name different 
ideas ; if a word suggest but one idea, it wiU be that one with wiiich 
it is most familiarly associated in the mind of the narratee. 

Thus, to some, apple would mean a certain kind of fruit, because it 
has been so used by them ; to others, dealers in trees, it would suggest 
an apple-tree only ; to others, apple-sauce ; or apple-dealer ; or the apple 
of the eye ; or the Adam's apple; or the apples of Sodom. To each it 
would suggest according to the manner^ in which each most frequently 
or familiarly uses the word, apple. 

7. Nomenclature. The Names or Terms belong- 
ing to the Ehetorical Use of Words, are Ambiguous^ 
Synonymous^ Antithetical^ Euphony^ Definition^ No- 
menclature ov Serminology^ and Use or Office. 

Amhiguous Words. 
Lit. Def. The word, amMguoics,'^ mesiRQ acting double. 

8. An Ambiguous Word is a word which may he taken in 
two or more meanings at the same time. 

" Dear Doctor," said one of Dr. Johnson's friends, " should n-e-i-t-h-e-r 
be pronounced naythur, or nitliurV ^^ Neither^''' said the Doctor. 

Synonymous Words. 
Lit. Def. The word, synonymous,^ means names used together, alike. 

9. Synonymous Words are two or more vjords having nearly 
the same meaning. 

Examples. 
1. Articulation afid Enunciation refer to speaking correctly. 

Articulation relates to joining sounds which belong together ; while. 
Enunciation relates to the proper utterance of sounds. 

Thus, Ladie sand Gentlemen, for Ladies and Gentlemen; in which the 
s should be articulated with ladie, and not with and. Again, Ladies an 
Gentlemen; in which the d is not enunciated. 

1 Ambiguous. oiiS= ixe, — '— ; igu =- ag, acts, goes; amM, two ways, double. 

2 gYNONYMOUs. ous. ; ouym = nomeii, word, name, term; syn^mm, to- 
gether. 



56 THE RHETOBIC OF LANGUAGE. 

2. Build and Construct relate to putting together. 

Build includes preparing and putting the parts together; while, 
Construct means putting together parts already prepared. 

3. Classification and Division refer to separating a collec- 
tion of objects into parts. 

A Classification is always made according to the differences in some 
basis; while, a Division may be made with a basis and, also, with- 
out a basis. (See Chap. YI., Classification, Basis.) 

4. Communication and Expression refer to telling. 

A Communication is a narration in which two or more persons par- 
ticipate ; while, an Expression is a narration by one person only. 

5. Genius and Talent name higher Spirit powers. 

Genius is the power to create and, also, the power to appreciate the 
creations of others ; while. Talent is the power to appreciate and use 
what others have created. 

6. Healthy and Wholesome refer to soundness, both of body 
and of mind. 

^eGiz^% refers to that which is sound, good in itself; while, whole- 
some refers to that which promotes healthfulness in another. 

Thus, fruit is Ttealthyy when sound, perfect; while^ it is wholesome, 
when it contributes to the health of those using it. 

7. Instruct^ Educate^ and Teach refer to aids in the acqui- 
sition of knowledge. 

Instruct refers to the means by which one individual enables another 
to understand that which is to be learned, and how to study it ; Edu- 
cate refers to the training by which the learner reproduces that knowl- 
edge wherein he has been instructed; while. Teaching includes both 
instructing and educating. 

8. Name, Term, and Word refer to the means by which 
ideas are made known. 

Name is the spoken or written means by which any idea is made 
known ; Term is a name used generally in Science, more restricted in 
its application than Name ; while, a Word is a sound or written sign 
which has been, or may be used as a name or term. 

XoTE I. The .careful study of Synonymous words, enables the stu- 
dent to select the word best fitted for his purpose. More examples may 
be found in Chap. Y. See, also. Dictionary; Crabbe's Synonymes^ etc. 

Aoitithetical Words. 
Lit. Def. The word, antithetical,^ means placed opposite, or opposed. 



1 Antithetical. «Z, ; -20, state of, condition of: (e)t, one who, that which 

th, [has been] put, placed ; a7iU^ opposite, before. 



EUPHONY — DEFINITIONS. 57 

10. Aktithetical Words are loords having opposite 
raeanings. 

As, light, dark; long, short; sweet, sour; true, false; joyful, sor- 
rowful; definite, indefinite; finite, infinite; dependent, independent; 
limited, unlimited; decimal, non-decimal; similar, dissimilar; etc. 

Euphony. 
Lit. Def. The word, euphony,^ TReans pleasant sounding. 

11. The term^ Euphony, is applied to the science and art of 
arranging sounds so that they can he easily produced and uttered 
hy the organs of speech^ and thus he made pleasant to the ear. 

Thus, the words, simple^ single^ are formed of sin and pAe. If the 
sin remain unchanged, p becomes (/, and we have single; but, if the^^^e 
remain unchanged, the n becomes m, and we have simple. 

In these euphonic changes, certain letters are interchangeable ; be- 
cause, in speaking, thej are produced by nearly the same organs of 
speech. 

First; r, /, v^ p, 5, m. 

Second; Z, <s, cA, j) t, d, n. 

Third; $, Z;, g. 

Definitions, 

Lit. Dif. The word, definitions^ signifies the science of that which 
fences., includes. 

12. The term^ Definition, ^5 used to name the means hy 
which the signification or meaning of a term or word is made 
known. 

13. Definitions are of three kinds ; Natural or Ohjec- 
tive^ Literal or Nominal^ and Real or Essential. 

Natural or Ohjective Definitions. 

Lit. Def. The word, objective,^ means like or having the p)roperty of 
that which has Men placed before [us]. 

14:. The Natural or Objective Definition of a word is the 
idea.^ notion or perception, which the luord names or expresses. 

1 Euphony, y — e. scienco and art of; pJwii. sound; en, pleasant, well. The 

word antithetical to e?^jp7iO?t?/ is ca-coph-o-ny ; {o)p7i{o)ny^ ; cac, disagreeable, 

unpleasant, bad, 

2 Defixitiox. ion, science of, art of; {i)t, that which, one who ; Jin, fences, 
shuts : de, about, around. 

s Ojjjectite. tive^ ; jec, has been put, x)laced, cast ; o&, before [us], 

3* 



5S THE RHETORIC OF LAKGUAGE.- 

Note I. The wise Creator has arranged that the knowledg'e of a 
word shall be gained in the following order ; jirst, a child gets mi idea- 
of an object; second, with this idea of an object, the child gets an id,ea 
of a sound by observing that others use this sound in connection vfith 
the object; thirds the child's ideas of the sound and of the object b^'- 
come so intimately associated that the sound recalls the idea as readily 
as the object itself could recall it. This sound has now become tb'* 
child's name or term for that idea and. hence, has becotne a word. Thib 
word, the child, as a narrator, will use to express or name the idea : and^ 
by this word, this idea will be awakened or called up in the mind of the 
child, as a narratee. Of course, if the child learn to use this word a& 
tlie name of two, or more ideas, any one, or all of these ideas may be 
suggested or recalled by that word. 

13. Rule for Natural Definitions. First^ the learner 
must become familiar with the idea itself ; and then, must re- 
ceive and. become familiar loith the word naming that idea. 

Note II. In giving Natural definitions, the following order of pre- 
sentation should be observed ; — 

L Present the thing or object from which the idea, constituting the 
Natural definition, is to be learned, and keep this idea before the mind 
until it becomes familiar. 

Note III. That, from which the idea is learned, may be a material 
object, or it ma}' be an immaterial object. Many erroneously suppose 
tliat an Object Lesson must always be founded upon a material object^ 
forgetting that the highest Object Lessons, as those pertaining to so- 
ciety, to intellection, to morality, to religion, and to piety are necessarily 
founded on imrnaMricd objects. Undoubtedly, some have been led into 
this error by observing, that Object Lessons begin with material objects^ 
commonly called things^ and by not observing that Object Lessons as 
naturally begin with immaterial objects, and that these are called things 
also. 

II. Pronounce, correctly, the word or term naming the idea, and 
cause the learner so to pronounce it. 

Note IY. In pronouncing or speaking a word, attention should be^ 
given to two things ; firsts to the 'proper utterance or enunciation'^ of each 
sound belonging to the word ; and, second^ to the proper joining of these 
sounds in syllables or the articulation'^ of these sounds. 

III. Cause the learner to spell the words b}^ sounds or phonetically. 
IY. Cause the learner to write the word and to spell it by letters or 

literally. 

Note Y. It must be borne in mind that spelling by sounds or pho- 
netic spelhng is for the purpose of training the organs of voice and of 

1 ExrxcTATiov. {ia)tion, : rmnc=^no2(7ic, speaking, telling; e=exj out^ 

See Diet., 2^roriOir/iCc. denounce, announee.. 

2 Articulatiox. ation, ; ('i)c'W^, small, little ; a?^^, joint, hinge. 



I 



ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 59 

speech in the proper production of sounds, and the organ of hearing in 
properly detecting and appreciating these sounds when so produced ; 
and, that writing is for training the sense of sight in quickly and cor- 
rectly appreciating a word from the letters used in writing it. 

Y. Cause the learner to construct phrases and sentences, each con- 
taining the word presented. 

VI. Cause the learner to find other words resembling in whole, or in 
part the given word. 

VII. Cause the word to be analyzed. 



Literal or Nominal Definitions, 

Lit. Def. The word, literal,^ means belonging to letters^ or to sand. 
Lit. Def. The word, nominal^'^ means belonging to the name. 

IG. TJie Literal or Nominal Definition of a word is its 
meaning according to its elements. 

Note I. Finding the Literal meanings of words is called the Analysis 
of words. 

1 7. Literal or Nommal Definitions are of three kinds, 
wliich are called ; Immediate^ Intermediate^ and TJUimate 
Analyses. (Ch. L, ®, 1©, 11.) 

Immediate Analysis of Words. 

18. The Immediate Analysis of a word is the act of sep- 
arating it into its immediate elements or parts^ called ; the Root, 
Theme or Basis ; the Suffix ; and the Prefix. 

Lit. Def. The word, root,^ means that which pierces, thrusts. 
Lit. Def. The word, iheme^ means something put or placed [as a 
foundation] . 

lO. The EooT, Theme or Basis of a word is that part 
which is used as the foundation or hase in the formation of the 
word. 

ISToTE I. The Eoot of a word is sometimes changed in form or modi 
fied for the sake of euphony between the sounds of the Root and those 
of its Prefix, or of its SufiQx. 

1 Literal, at, ; er, state of, office of; lit, sand, element, beginning. The 

root, lit = gram ; hence, Grammar^ the elements of Language; gramm^ grain. 
(See Aiith., Metric Tables.) 

2 NoMixAL. al, ; noininr=z nom&n, word, name, term. 

s Eoot. (o)^, ; ro = Wi, creeps thrusts, flows, glides. 

♦ Theme, e. state of; them, base, foundation. 



60 THE KHLTORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Thus, the root, jj/ [fold], is changed to 5Z, when preceded by dou 
[two] ; as, in the word, double [twofold]. Fl after si7i [without], is 
changed to gl; hence, single [without fold]. 

Again, the root, te/id [stretch, relation], followed by certain suffixes, 
is changed to tent or to tens ; as, tend, tents.tiYe. tension, tense, pretend, 
prefe/zsion or •pretention, preteyise, or prete7ice. 

In these euphonic changes of Roots, b, / and v are interchangeable ; 
as, goi'ernor, guZ;ernatorial ; fit-e, fi/teen; shea/ sheares. 

frequently one vowel is changed for another ; as, factory, refectory, 
f2"ction. fz'xt. (See Chap. IV., Derivation of Wo'rds.) 

Lit. Def, The word, prefix,^ means put before [another]. 

9®. The Prefix is that i^ccTt which is joined to the heginning 
of the Root. 

Thus, by prefixing abs^ at^ con, de, ex, in, pro, re, suh, un, to the root, 
tract [draw], we have; — 

abstract, draw from. ^?itract, draw in. 

az^ract, draw to. _^rotract, drav\" forth, 

co/ztract, draw together. retract, draw back, 

(detract, draw about. 5Z^&tract. draw under, 

ecctract, draw out. unXraQt. not capable of being drawn. 

(See Chap. lY., Analysis of Words.) 

i^OTE II. For the sake of euphony, the Prefix is frequently changed ; 
ad before lure becomes cdlnie ; ar/notation, a?znotation : «c/propriate, ap- 
propriate; sinpie, 5Z7/zple; 5-^mlable, sylioibie. (See Chap. lY., Deriv- 
ative Words, Prefixes.) 

Lit. Def. The word, suffix,"^ mesons p)ut or placed afier [another]. 

SI. A Suffix is that jp art which is joined to the end of the 
Root. 

Thus, by suffixing ar, er, ir, or, ur, we add to the root the meaning, 
one, one who, that ichich, office of, condition oj ; as, consular, the office of 
a consul ; doer, one who does ; creato?^, one who creates ; creat-M^'e, con- 
dition of that which has been created. 

Note III. Several excellent Text-Books on the Immediate Analysis 
of Y^ords are now before the public, to which the student is referred, 
if he v\' ish more instruction on the subject than is to be found in this 
Work, and in the large Dictionaries. 

Intermediate Analysis of Words. 

9S. The Intermediate Analysis of a word is the act of 
separating a Root, a Prefix, or a Suffix into its immediate ele- 
ments. 

1 Peefix. fim =Jict, tJhat wMch has been put, placed ; pre^ before. 

2 Suffix. Jlx^ :svf=sub., after. 



ULTIMATE ANALYSIS. 61 

Thus, the immediate analysis of the word, addition^ gives the suffix, 
^07^, the action of; the root, dit, puts, joins; and the prefix, ad^ to- 
gether. The intermediate analysis of the word, addition^ gives 

ad-d-{i)-t-ion ; ion, ; t, that which, one who ; i, euphonic; d, point, 

made into a point ; ad, . 

By the immediate analysis, the word, subtraction, has for its sufnx, 
ion; for its root, tract; for its prefix, 5z^6. Ey the m^erm6<im^e analysis, 
sub-trac-t-ion. 

By its immediate analysis, the word, teacher, has the suffix, er, and 
the root, teach. By its intermediate analysis, its root, teo^h, is divided 
into, teach ; its sufiQx being er ; hence, we have, er, one who ; ch, things ; 
tea, points, joins, creates. 

By its immediate analysis, the word, they, is a primitive or root 
word. By its intermediate analysis, if/ie?/ becomes, th-e-y ; y, who; e, 
euphonic ; th = the root, t, d, . 



Ultimate Analysis of Words, 

93. The Ultimate Analysis of a word is that, in lohich the 
meaning of each letter and its nse in the formation of a word is 
considered. 

Thus, by the ultimate analysis of the word, addition, we have in the 
suffix, ion; n, being, existence, one, unit, whole; o, having, has; i, 

euphonic, used to alter the sound of the o ; in the root, dit; d-i-t, ; 

in the prefix, ad; d = the roots, t, d, th, ; a, euphonic. 

Note I. By a comparison of these analyses, we see that the Imme- 
diate analysis of a word corresponds to the analysis of a thought as to 
its immediate elements, which may be thoughts, groups of ideas, or 
ideas only, and may be all of these; while, the Intermediate analysis 
of a word corresponds to the analysis of the immediate elements of 
thought into their immediate elements; and, finally, that the Ultimate 
analysis of a word corresponds to the ultimate analysis of a thought, 
in which we find each idea entering into the thought. 

Note II. In studying the analyses, students should begin with the 
Immediate analysis and, when this has been made somewhat fiuniliar, 
commence the Intermediate analysis. Of the two, the Intermediate is 
the more simple and usefiol, although, at first, it does not appear to 
be so. 

Some aid in the Intermediate analysis may be obtained by studying 
the words analyzed in the Author's Works on Language and Arith- 
metic, in which, the Intermediate analysis is generally used. 

The Ultimate analysis of words may be learned by tracing each of 
several primitive or root words through its derivative words, and 
noting carefully the euphonic changes of each root, with its suffixes 
and prefixes; then, by comparing the euphonic changes of the diff'erent 
roots, the student will be enabled to reach some conclusion as to the 
original value of each letter in the primitive word. The Ultimate 
analysis of words, and the Intermediate also, is one of the very best 



62 THE HliKTrpjC OF LANGUAGE. 

exercises of the Inventive Faculties, since it requires close observation, 
correct classification and generalization, in order to reach what is true 
of each of the given elements. 

. ISTOTE III. The Author cannot too highly commend this study or 
words or Philology to students, nor too strongly urge it upon them. 
Study each word that you speak, hear, or read, as to its birth, to its 
derivation, to its history, and to its use. Thus, you gain much knowl- 
edge and, also, that best of heaven's social gifts to man, the ability to 
communicate your thoughts to others. 

Note IY. Generally, Literal definitions should be given by defining ; 
first, the suffix; second, the root; third, the prefix. Then, compare 
the definition thus obtained with the idea, whether it be a simple idea, 
or an idea of a process, which is named by the word. Thus; — 

The word, unit^ means that lohich. is one. This is a good term, because 
that, which is taken as one in Counting or Numbering, is called the Unit 

Real or Essential Definitions. 

Lit. Def. The word, real^^ means belonging to the use [of a thing]. 
Lit. Def. The word, essential^'^ means helongmg to the being within, 

24:. The Real or Essential Definition of a word explains 
the meaning or use of that word as a name or term. 

Note I. In this work, the expression, the word, , means, signi- 
fies that the Literal or Nominal definition of the word is given ; while, 

the expression, the name or term, , means, signifies that the Real 

or Essential definition is given. 

Note II. Since the same word may be used as the name for two or 
more ideas, it follows that the same word may have two or more Keal 
or Essential definitions. 

Thus, in common use, the term, number, is used to mean an indefinite 
number, more than can be easily known without counting. A lecturer, 
who was asked how many were at his last lecture, replied, " a number 
of persons." It was afterward ascertained that three persons were 
present. 

Second, the term, number, as used in G-rammar, relates to an idea 
of one and to an idea of more than one ; as, ball, balls, man, m.en. 

Third, the term, number, is used in Arithmetic ; fi^^st, as the name 
of an expression showing how many, or which one ; second, to name 
the act of finding which one is meant ; as, first, second, third, etc. 

The term, subject, is used in History as the name of one who is 
ruled or governed by another. In Architecture, as the foundation. In 
the construction of sentences, as the name of the foundation or basis. 
In narration, as the name of that concerning which the narrator would 
communicate to the narratee. (See Diet., republic.) 

^ Real, al, belong^ing to ; re, tMng matter, use. 

5 Essential. {i)al, - — ; t, ; s&n, meaning, idea ; es = ea ^-^ in, inner 

within. 



DEFINITIONS. 63 

25. Every Eeal or Essential Definition may be stated 
in two modes ; of which, the first is called the Objective 
or Synthetic; the second, the Subjective or Analytic. 

36. A Real or Essential Defadtion is Objective or Syn- 
THETic, when the definition jprecedes the term. 

Examples. 

1. Finding how many are meant is called Counting. 

2. Finding which one is meant is called Numbering. 

3. That, which is taken as one in Counting or in Number- 
ing, is called the Unit. 

4. A part of a Unit is a Fraction of that Unit. 

5. An expression, showing how many, or which one is 
meant, is called a Number. 

Note III. A Real definition, when stated Objectively or Synthet- 
ically, corresponds to the order in which we learn in the School of Na- 
ture; in which, we go from the idea to the word naming that idea; 
hence, it is the order in which all the definitions should be presented 
in a First or Primary Course. It is the order in which we gain knowl- 



LiT. Def. The word, subjective^'^ means that which has been put under. 

37. A Real or Essential definition is Subjectiye or Ana- 
lytic, when the term precedes the definition. 

Examples. 

1. Counting is finding how many are meant. 

2. Numbering is finding which one is meant. 

3. The Unit is that, which is taken as one in Counting or 
in Numbering. 

4. A Fraction is a part of a Unit. 

5. A Number is an expression showing how many or which 
one is meant. 

Note IY. A Real definition, when stated Subjectively or Analyt- 
ically, corresponds to the order in which our knowledge is arranged for 
use or the Scientific order. (See Preface of this Work ; also. Chap, 
VL, Science.) 

^ S UBJECTIVE. tvce, - — ; j?>c, lias been put, cast, or thrown ; «w&, under. 



64 THE RHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Rules for Real or Essential Definitions. 

Note Y. The following Rules should be observed in the formation 
of definitions not only , but in the examination of statements purporting 
to be definitions. Especially should this be done with the " Definitions" 
given in Text Books for Schools. If the definition be a good one, this 
examination gives the student a just idea of its meaning and fitness, 
and thus enables him the more easily to learn it ; while, if the definition 
be erroneous, the student will, by this means, be enabled to discover 
and to correct the error. 

98. Rule I. The words of the Definition must he more fa- 
miliar to the student^ than the term which is defined. 

Note YI. The teacher must be the judge as to the student's famil- 
iarity with the words of the definition. It is a great error to suppose 
that the meanings of sliort words are familiar to the learners, and that 
the meanings of long words are unfamiliar to them. All words, whether 
short or long, are alike famihar and easy to those who are familiar with 
the ideas named by these words. 



Examples. 

1. Addition is the aggregation of entities composing an 
entirety. 

2. Addition is finding a number equal to two or more ad- 
dends. 

3. Addition is finding a number equal in value to two or 
more given numbers. 

4. Addition is putting several smaller numbers into one 
larger number. 

20. Rule II. A Definition must he a true statement. That 
is ; first., it must not omit a part of that which is named hy the term ; 
second^ it must not include that which is not named hy the term ; 
thirds it must not include a statement which does not assist in de- 
fining the term. 

Examples. 

1. Addition is the process of finding a number equivalent 
to two or more addends. 

If the words of this definition be more familiar to ■ the learner than 
the term. Addition, then it is a good definition as far as Rule I. is con- 
cerned. If it be a true statement, then it is a good definition as far as 
Rule II. is concerned. 



DEFINITIONS — RULES. 65 

2. Addition is finding a whole number equivalent to two 
or more whole numbers. 

Ex., 2, is faulty^ as a definition. It omits something which the term, 
Addition, includes. Addition is finding a number equivalent to two or 
more given numbers, whether these numbers be whole, fractional, or 
mixed. 

3. A Non-decimal or Common fractional number is one 
whose denominator is not one of the ordinals, tenth, hundredth, 
thousandth, etc. 

4. ''A Common fraction is one whose unit is divided into 
any number of equal parts." 

Ex., 4, as a definition, is faulty, because it includes too much. Ac- 
cording to it, every fractional is a common or non-decimal and, of course, 
no fractional number is left to be defined as a decimal. 

5. A Decimal fractional is one whose denominator is one 
of the ordinals, tenth, hundredth, thousandth, etc. 

6. "A Decimal fraction is one whose denominator is tenth, 
hundredth, thousandth, etc., and is not expressed^ 

Ex., 6, is false, as a definition, because no fractional number can be 
expressed by using a single number only. See Arith., Fractional 
Numbers. 

7. "A Decimal fraction is one whose denominator is ten, 
one hundred, one thousand, etc." 

Ex., 7, as a definition, is absurd, because no cardinal number can be 
used as the denominator of a fractional. All denominators must be 
ordinal numbers. 

8. ''The subject of the sentence is the agent, actor, doer." 

This is faulty, as a definition, because the name of the receiver may 
be used as the Subject. Thus, wood is cut by John, in which the na?ne 
of the receiver is used as the Subject of the sentence. 

Ex., 8, is false, as a definition, because it is not the idea of the agent, 
actor or doer that is used as the Subject, but the name of that idea. 

9. "A Noun is a name." 

This is faulty, because it includes too much. Every word is the 
name of some idea, and hence, according to this definition, every word 
must be a noun, which is absurd. 

Note YII. Tlie great number of faulty and false statements, given as 
definitions, which are, of course, worse than useless, has led many to 
neglect the study of the name's or terms of certain of the sciences ; as. 
in Arithmetic ; while the definitions are carefully memorized in other 
studies ; as, in G-rammar, Greography, etc. The study of no part of a 
science contributes more to mental discipline than the careful study of 
its names or terms. 



66 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE, 

3©. Rule III. The definition of a class or kind should con- 
tain the name of the hasis^ according to lohich the classification 
was made. (See Chap. VI., Classification.^ 

Examples. 

1. A Simple thought is one vrhose immediate elements are 
ideas or groups of ideas. 

2. A Compound thought is one whose immediate elements 
are thoughts. 

The lasis^ according to which thoughts are divided into Simple, and 
Compound, is their immediate elements. 

3. A Proper fractional is one whose value is less than a 
unit. 

4. An Improper fractional is one whose value ' equals or 
exceeds a unit. 

Value is the Msis according to which fractionals are divided into 
Proper, and Improper. 

j^OTE YIII. At the option of the teacher, the Literal may be given 
before the Eeal definition ; or, the Real before the Literal. 

5. Literal Definition. The word, euphony, means sounding 
pleasantly. 

Real Definition. The term, Euphony, is the name of the 
science and art of making sounds easy for the organs of 
speech, and to the ear. 

6. Real Definition, The term. Euphony, is the name, etc. 
Literal Definition. The word, euphony, means, etc. 

In examples, 5, 6, the definitions are Subjective or Analytic in the 
statement. In example, T, the definitions are stated Ohjectively or 
Synthetically. 

7. Real Definition, The science and art of making sounds 
easy for the organs of speech is called Euphony. Because ; — 

Literal Definition. The word, euphony, means, etc. 

Nomenclature or Terminology. 

Lit. Def. The word, nomenclature^'^ means the office of that which 
opens or unlocks a name. 



1 N"oMENCLATTiBE. urs, office of; ^, that whicli; cla, opens, unlocks, splits; 
v/yinen^ words, names, terms. 



NOMENCLATURE OR TERMINOLOGY. 67 

Lit. Def. The word, terndnology^^ means the science of lin.ils or 
hounds 

SS. Nomenclature or Terminology is applied to tltcd 
part of a science which includes its names or terms and tlteir 
definitions. 

32. According to the relation existing between its 

literal and real definitions, a Name or Term is said to 

be Scientific^ Semi-scientific^ and Unscientific or Barharous. 

Lit. Def. The word, scientific^ means made from that which was 
known or learned, 

33. A Scientific Name or Term is one whose literal defi- 
nition suggests its real. 

Thus, the Kteral definition of the word, photography^ which is draw- 
ing with the light, readily suggests its real definition, a drawing made by 
the light; hence, Photography is a scientific term. 

Lit. Def. The word, semi-scientific, means half or partially scientific. 

34r. A Semi-scientific Name or Terni is one whose literal 
hut partially suggests its real meaning. 

Thus, the word, multiplication, literally, means the science and art 
of that which is folded many tim,es ; or, has m.any folds. Originally, it 
was applied to the process of finding a number equivalent to tioo or 
more times a certain number. Now, the term is applied to finding the 
result of a number taken one time, a fractional part of a time, and no 
time. (See Arith., Multiplication.) 

Lit. Def. The word, unscientific, means not scientific. 

Lit. Def. The word, barbarous,^ means something rough or bearded, 

35. An Unscientific or Barbarous Name or Term is 
one whose literal does not suggest its real or essential meaning. 

Thus, the word, isthmus, which, literal, means fixed, set, estaUished, 
is applied by Oeographers to a narrow neck of land connecting two 
larger portions. This name was first applied to the neck of land now 
known as the "Isthmus of Corinth;" because, certain games were 
celebrated there at certain fixed, set or established times. 

In like manner, the word, barbarous, which, literally, means having a 
heard, is now applied to denote a certain degree in the scale of civiliza- 

1 Terminology. y=e, being, having; olog, sciences ', terrain, bounds, limits, 
terms, fences, 

2 Scientific, (^)/^■c, made ; {6)nt, from that which; sci. is known, or has been 
learned. That is, Science is made by arranging or classifying our knoicleclge of 
a subject. 

8 BaebapwOus, ous^ ; a/*, oflace of, state of; barb., point, beard, roughness* 



68 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGK 

tion. Among the Roman, the expression, larla Tiorrida [rough bearded]^ 
was used to distinguish a rustic, who neglected the hair and beard, 
from a citizen, by whom the hair and beard were carefully trimmed and 
anointed. 

Lit. Def. The word, use^'^ means Jiabit, way^ method. 
Lit. Def. The word, office^'^ means employment, method. 

36. The Use or Office of a word is the part which it takes 
in the construction of a phrase^ or of a sentence. 



PHRASES. 

37. Tlie science of Phrases includes ; first^ tlie Defi- 
nitions ; second^ tlie Formation ; and third^ tlie Classifica- 
tions of Phrases. 

!The word, phrase,^ means 
something said or uttered. 
A Phrase is the expres- 
sion or name of a group of ideas. (See Chap. I., Group of 
Ideas. ^ 

Examples. 

1. A friend of the race. The friend of Ellen. EUen^s 
friend. 

General Analysis. Logically, a friend of the race is a group of ideas, 
of which, friend is the principal idea ; a, race, subordinates to friend ; 
the, subordinate to race; and of, an idea of the relation of race io friend. 

Ehetorically, a friend of the race is a phrase ; because, it expresses 
or names a group of ideas. 

39. Second, the Foemation of Pheases. The 
Immediate Elements, used in the formation of Phrases, 
are the Words, and the Phrases, naming the immediate 
elements of the gronp which the Phrase expresses. 

2. A fine house. Those large trees. Many learned men. 

General Analysis. Logically, a fine house is a group of ideas, whose 
immediate elements are ideas. Ehetorically, a fine house is a phrase ; 

1 Use gj belonging to ; s = t, that which ; u, does, keeps. 

2 Office, e, ; fie, made, done; of=o'b, through, on account of. 

3 Phease. e, state of, office of ; s=- ^,'that which ; ^phra, tells, speaks. 



ELEMENTS OF PHRASES. 69 

because, it expresses a group of ideas. Its immediate elements are the 
words naming the ideas, of which the group is formed. 

3. The very deep red color of the rose. The country seat of 
a very rich man. 

General Analysis. Logically, the very deep^ etc., is a group of ideas, 
whose immediate elements are the ideas, the^ color, of; and, the groups, 
ve7-y deep red, the rose. Rhetorically, the very deep, etc., is a phrase. 
The immediate elements used in its formation, are the words, the, color, 
of; and the phrases, very deep red, the rose. 

In hke manner, analyze, very deep red, the rose. 

40. Each immediate element of a Phrase has its use 
or office according to the essentials^ which it names, and 
the pari which the element takes in the formation of 
the Phrasa 

41, According to their use or office^ the Elements of 
a Phrase are called its Principal word, its Adjunct 
"Words, its Adjunct Phrases, and its Relators. 

43. The Peincipal Word of a Phrase is the word naming 
the principal idea of the group, and used as the foundation or 
hasis on which the Phrase is constructed. 

In ex., 1, the word, friend, is the principal word ; because, it names 
the principal idea of the group, and is the foundation or basis on which 
the phrase is constructed. 

Lit. Def. The word, adjunct,'^ means that which has been joined [to 
another]. 

43. An Adjunct Word is one naming a subordinate or 
secondary idea, and used in the Phrase with another loord. 

Thus, in ex., 3, the is an adjunct word of the principal, color. 

44. An Adjunct Phrase is one naming a subordinate group ^ 
and used us an adjunct of a ivord. 

Thus, in ex., 3, very deep red, the rose, are adjunct phrases of the 
principal word, color. 

In the adjunct phrase, very deep red, red is an adjunct word of color; 
very deep, an adjunct phrase of 7^ed ; of which, deep is an adjunct word 
of red, and very an adjunct word of deep. 

Note I. An Adjunct word is so called, because it seems to be joined 
to its principal word. There is, however, no direct relation between 
words. This is clearly seen by observing that the classification of the 

' Adjunct. j{, that which; juiw^ has been joined; ad, to [something]. 



70 THE EHETORIC OF LAKGUAGE. 

words, forming a phrase, into the principal and its adjuncts^ is based 
upon the relation of the ideas named by these words, and not upon the 
relation between the words themselves. Eor convenience, however, 
we often speak of the relation of one word to another of the same 
phrase. This is a figurative use of language. (See Chap. Y., Meto- 
nymy.) 

Lit. Def. The word, relator ^'^ means that which carries lack. 

4:5. A Relatok ^5 a word naming an idea of relation^ and 
used to show the relation between an adjunct word^ or adjunct 
phrase^ and another word. 

In the phrase, a friend of the race, of is a relator ; because, it names 
an idea of relation, and is used to show the relation of the adjunct 
phrase, the race, to its principal, friend. 

Note II. For convenience, we often describe the relator as showing 
the relation between an adjunct and its principal word. In point of 
fact, however, the relator is simply the name of the relation of one idea 
to another in the same group. 

46. The words, whose relation is shown by a Relator^ 
are called ; the Antecedent^ and the Subsequent Terms of 
the Eelator. 

Lit. Def. The word, antecedent,'^ means going hefore [another]. 

47. The Antecedent Term of a relator is the word^ to 
which the relation of another word is shown hy the relator. 

Thus, in the phrase, the friend of man, the word, friend, is the ante- 
cedent term of the relator, of. 

Lit. Def. The word, subsequent,^ means that which follows after 
[another]. 

48. The Subsequent Term of a relator is the word, whose 
relation to an antecedent term is shown hy the relator. 

Thus, in the phrase, the friend of man, the word, man, is the suhse- 

queiit term of the relator, of 

Xote III. Generally, the Antecedent term is placed before the 
relator, and the Subsequent Term is placed after it ; but, this is not 
always the case, for the Subsequent is sometimes placed before its 
relator ; as, of this man^s wrongs, no redress I, meaning no redress of this 

mail's wrongs ! 

1 Relator, or, state of; t, that whicli ; ^«, carries; re, back. 

^ Antecedent, {e)nt, state of that which ; ced, walks, goes ; ante,, before, 

^ Subsequent. {e)nt, ; sequ, follows; sub, after. 



RELATIONS OF ADJUKCT WORDS. 71 

49. The relations of Adjunct words to their Prmci- 
pals may be shown in four ways ; first, by position ; 
second, by relators; third, by the apostrophe^ or the 
hyphen ; fourth, logically or by the meanings of the 
words. 

50. First. When the relation of an adjunct word to 
its principal is shown hj position only, the adjunct*gen- 
erally precedes its principal. 

4. A really true man. A very large quantity of fruit. The 
very Irilliant plumage of the various birds of the tropical 

4 regions of the earth. 

51. Second. When the relation of an adjunct to its 
principal is shown by a relator^ the adjunct is placed 
after its principal. 

5. Fond of wealth. The shells of old ocean. Incapable of 
exertion. 

6. The very brilliant plumage of the various lirds of the 
tropical regions of the earth. 

52. Third. When the relation of an adjunct io its 
principal is shown by an apostrophe^ or by a hyphen^ 
the adjunct is placed before its principal. 

7. Ellen^s friends. The Mechanics'' Society. Fishing- 
tackle. Boot-]diQk. 

Note IY. G-enerallj, the relation of an adjunct, expressing the 
source , origin, or ownership, etc., of its Principal, may be shown by 
the Apostrophe, or by the Relator, q/j according to the taste of the 
narrator ; as, man^s rights, the rights of man. 

In some instances, this change alters the meaning of the expression, 
but it does not alter the use or office of the adjunct word, whose sign of 
relation is thus changed ; as, Washington'' s anecdotes^ anecdotes of Wash- 
ington, which expressions have different meanings, while the adjunct 
words, Washington's, of Washington, name ideas subordinate to anecdotes. 

In other instances, custom does not permit this change ; as, the state 
of affairs, is not expressed as the affairs' state; while, the states affairs 
may be expressed as the affairs of the state. (See Punctuation, Apos- 
trophe.) 



72 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAaE. 

8. The mountain's top. The mountains^ tops. The motm- 
tom-top. 

9. The house of the partner of the brother of the wife of 
John. John's wife's brother's partner's house. The house 
of the partner of John's wife's brother. 



XoTE Y. The hyphen does not affect the Logical and Rhetorical uses 
of the words forming the Phrase ; thus, with or without the hyphen, 
mountain is an adjunct of top. When the hyphen is used, the words 
joined by it are caUed a Compound word. (See Punctuation, Hyphen.) 

53. Fourth. When the relation of an adjunct to its 
principal is shown logically or by its meaning only, the 
adjunct is sometimes placed before, but generally after 
its principal. 

10. Oh, maiden /atV/ Oh, sky ^ererie / 

Classification of Phrases. 

54. Thirds the Classifications. Phrases are classi- 
fied according to their formation^ and according to their 
relations. 

55. First Classification. According to their /orma- 
tion, Phrases are of two kinds ; Simple^ and Compound, 

56. A Simple Phrase is one whose immediate elements are 
words. 

Examples. 

1. Some fine books. A man's hat. The wealth of nations. 

Some fine looks is a simple phrase ; because, its immediate elements 
are its principal word, hooks, and its adjunct words, some, fine. 

5T. A Compound Phrase is one having one or more adjunct 
phrases among its immediate elements. 

2. This very large book. A song of the good old times. 

This very large look is a compound phrase; because, its immediate 
elements are its principal word, look, its adjunct word, this, and its 
adjunct phrase, very large. 



PHBASES— DEPENDEKT, INDEPENDENT. IS 

Note I. It is altogether probable, that the word, of, is the only one 
Avhich can be used as a relator in a Compound Phrase. Other words, 
liowever, seem to be so used. These are the results of contractions of 
sentences ; as, the trte in the garden, which is evidently a contraction 
of the sentence, iJie tree, which tree is in the garden. In like manner. 
Converts, -who ivere converted to temperance, may be contracted to Con- 
verts to temperance, which, at first sight, appears to be a Compound 
Phrase. 

Of is frequentlj^ used erroneously as a relator ; as, I had the money 
of James, meaning I had the money from James. 

58. Second Classification. According to tlieir rela- 
tions.^ Phrases are Dependent.^ and Independent. 

5U, A Dependknt Phrase is one which is used as an ad- 
junct in the formation of a compound phrase. 

Examples. 

1. A very extensive tract of country. A stream of very cold 

water. 

Very extensive is a dependent phrase ; because, it is used as an ad- 
junct phrase in the formation of the phrase, a very extensive tract of 
country. 

60. An Independent Phrase is one which is not nsed as an 
adjunct in the formation of a cor)%pound phrase. Hence, every 
Phrase, whether simple, or compound, taken entire, is inde- 
pendent. 

In a compound phrase, the Independent part may be a word 
onl}" ; or, it may be a phrase. 

As, four men^s strength ; in which the word, strength, is the indepen- 
dent part ; four men's is a dependent phrase. 

In the phrase, four men''s united strength, the independent part is 
united strength. 

2. A YQvj careless man's box of fishing-tackle. 

General Analysis. Logically, a very careless, etc., is a compound 
group of ideas, of which, hox is the principal; etc. 

Rhetorically, a very careless, etc., is a compound phrase ; because, 
etc. Its immediate elements are its principal word, 'box ; a, adjunct of 
hox ; of word of relation between tackle and box ; fishing -tacMe, de- 
pendent phrase, adjunct to hox. The dependent phrase, ve^y careless 
man's, has. as its elements, its principal word, man^s, adjunct to box; 
tliO dependent phrase, very careless, adjunct to man^s. The depeudent 
phraao, very careless, has, as its principal word, careless, adjunct to 
Viands; smdvery^ adjunct to careless. 

4 



74 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Special Analysis. Logically, a is an idea, subordinate either tD the 
idea, man^s, or to the idea, box. 

Rhetorically, a is an adjunct word, used ambiguously ; because, both 
by its position and by its meaning, it is related alike to man^s and to 
box. 

Logically, very is an idea, subordinate to the idea, careless. 

Rhetorically, very is an adjunct of the adjunct, careless, to whicih its 
relation is shown by position. 

Logically, careless is an idea, secondary to the idea, man^s. 

Rhetorically, careless is, by its position, ambiguously related alike to 
marcs and to box ; but, logically or by its meaning, careless is related to 
man^s only ; because, we can have no idea of relation between the ideas, 
careless^ box. 

Logically, man''s is an idea, subordinate to the idea, box. 

Rhetorically, man''s is an adjunct of the principal word, box, to which 
its relation is shown by an apostrophe. 

Logically, box is the principal idea of the group. 

Rhetorically, box is the principal word of the phrase ; because, it is 
the foundation or basis, etc. 

Logically, of is an idea of the relation of the secondary, tackle, to its 
principal, box. 

RhetoricaUy, o/is the relator of the adjunct, tackle, to its principal, 
box. 

Logically, fishing is an idea subordinate to the idea, tackle. 

Rhetorically, fishing is an adjunct of the adjunct, tackle, to which its 
relation is shown by a hyphen. 

Logically, tackle is an idea subordinate to the idea, box. 

Rhetorically, tackle is an adjunct of the principal, box, to which its 
relation is shown by the relator, of. 

Note I. Students, who are famihar with the logical and rhetorical 
analyses, as given above, may be allowed to give the rhetorical analysis 
«nly. Thus ; — 

A is an adjunct either of man''s, or of box. 

Careless is an adjunct of mmi's. 

MarCs is an adjunct of box. 

Box is the principal word of the phrase. 

0/is the relator o^ fishing-tackle to box. 

Fishing-tackle is a phrase adjunct of box. 

Note II. The Analysis of a Phrase may be written thus ; — 

Let P = the Principal idea or word. 
5 or 5^ — an idea subordinate to P. 
a or a^ = a word, adjunct to P. 
s'^ — an idea, subordinate to s or s^. 

a^ — a word, adjunct to a or a^; 

and so on with 6"^, -s"*; a^ o^, etc. 
Let the star or asterisk [*] = the idea of a relation or the relator. 

3. The great loyal heart 



PHRASES — DEPENDENT, INDEPENDENT. 75 

Written Analysis. The great, etc. = s s s F. Translation; 5, the; s, 
great ; s, loyal ; P, heart. 

4. The true station of man. 

Written Analysis. The tt'ue station, etc. = ^ 5 P * s. Translation, 
as above. 

5. Men's pride of great wealth. 

Written Analysis. Men^s pride, etc. = s P ^ s^ s\ 

6. The^ very^ bright^ plumage^ or the^ beautifuP birds^ 
or the^ tropicaP regions^ of* the* Earthl 

The very bright plumage of the beautiful birds of the 
Earth's tropical regions. 

Formula. The very, etc. = 121P*221*332*4 3. In 

the translation of this formula, 1 may be translated as s, or a ; that is, 
as an idea subordinate to the principal ; or, as a word adjunct to the 
principal. 

Note III. A student, who can readily construct the formula of a 
given phrase, and then translate it, is quite sure to be master both of 
the construction and, also, the analysis of that phrase. His skill will 
become more perfect, however, if he be made to construct phrases ac- 
cording to a given formula. Hence, students should be required to 
construct formulas for given phrases. (At first, these should be writ- 
ten.) At the next recitation, each student may read his or her formula 
of a given phrase, subject to the assent or dissent of the other mem- 
bers of the class ; in the same manner, as students give the solutions 
of examples in Arithmetic. When the student has finished the formula 
of a given phrase, his skill should be tested by requiring him to con- 
struct two or more phrases, according to the same formula. 

Note IY. For further exercise, analyze each example under Phrases, 
both orally and in writing, beginning at the first. 



76 THE BHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 



SENTENCES. 

61c The science of Sentences includes ; j^rs^, the 

Definitions ; second^ the Classifications ; third^ the Syntax 
of Sentences ; third^ the Ellipsis or Contraction of Sen- 
tences ; and fourth, Punctuation, 

, The word, sentence^'^ means 
63. First, the Definitions. ] something created, arranged. 

( A Sentence ^5 the ex- 
pression or name of a thought. (See Chap. I., 29.) 

XoTE I. The term, Sentence, is sometimes used to mean the thought 
itself; and, sometimes, the language expressing ihe thought. (See 
Chap. Y., Metonymy.) 

Examples. 

1. The good Creator gave the use of Thought Language to 
mankind. 

The good Creator, etc., is a sentence; because, it is the expression or 
name of a thought. 

2. Every human being should study Thought Language 
diligently, and should carefully seek its skillful use through 
that untiriiig practice which makes perfect ; because, Thought 
Language is the means by which each individual adds growth 
or development to his mental powers; and, through which, 
each individual uses or employs his mental powers in the 
accomplishment of his purposes. 

63. Second, the CLASSIFICATIONS. Sentences are 
•classified; first, according to their immediate elements; 
second, according to their relation ; third, according to 
their use hy the narrator. 

' Sentence, ence, state of; i, tliat wMch [has been] ; sen, thought, created. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 



SI. First Classification. According to their imme- 
diate elements, Sentences are of two kinds ; Simple, and 
Compound. 



Simple Sentences. 

63. A Simple Sentence is the expression or name of a simple 
thought Its elements are Words and Phrases. 

Note I. Many use the following definition, "A Simple Sentence is a 
sentence having one subject nominative and one finite verb." This is 
erroneous; because, it includes complex compound sentences. (See 
Bules for Definitions.) 

Examples. 

1. Men se-ek knowledge. F S T. 

General Analysis. {At the option of the teacher^ the student may give, 
or omit the Logical Analysis. If however^ the student hesitate or err in 
the Rhetorical, he should he required, at once, to produce the Logical 
Analysis.) 

Rhetorically, men seek knowledge is a simple sentence; because, it 
expresses a simple thought. Its elements are the words, men, seek, 
knowledge. 

2. The construction of sentences belongs exclusively to 
mankind. 1 2. 

General Analysis. The construction, etc., is a simple sentence ; be- 
cause, etc. Its elements are the phrases, the construction of sentences, 
belongs exclusively to mankind. 

3. Knowledge is sought by wise men. 3 2 1. 

General Analysis. Rhetorically, knowledge is sought, etc., is a simple 
sentence; because, etc. Its elements are the words, knowledge, by; 
and the phrases, is sought, wise m.en. 

Note II. The terms, used in the formation of sentences, are mostly 
borrowed from the science of Architecture. Thus, the construction of 
a sentence to contain a thought, is taken from the construction of a 
building. Men construct sentences which are the habitations of 
thoughts, as they construct houses, which are the habitations of 
thinkers 



73 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

66e Words have eight uses or offices in the formatiOB 
of Simple Sentences ; namely, Subjects^ Predicates or 
A^-ffi/Tners, First Ohjects^ Relators^ Second Objects^ Ad- 
juncts^ Personators^ and Mjcclamcitives. 

@T. Phrases have six uses or offices in the formation 
of Simple Sentences ; namely, Siibjects^ Predicates or 
AffirmerSj First Objects^ Second Objects^ Adjuncts^ and 
Exclaraatives. 

68. For convenience, Words and Phrases, according 
to their nseS or offices in a Simple Sentence, are divided 
into the Principal^ which includes Subjects, Affirm ers, 
and First Objects; Relators ; and, Adjunctives^ which in- 
clade Second Objects and Adjuncts; while. Phrases 
are divided into Principcd^ and Adjunctive Phrases. 

4. The brave old liero of many battles gallantly led his 
troojps into the very hottest part of the fight. 

In this example, the Princijpal words are Tiero^ lech troops. 
The Belaiors are o/ into, of. 

The Arljunctives are the, trave, old, many, latths, gallantly, his, they 
'Very, hottest, pari, the, fight. 

5. The troops were gallantly led into the very hottest part 
of the fight by the brave old hero of many battles. 3 2 1. 

In this example, the Principal words are troops, were led. 

Note III. Our reason for not placing a Second Object, naming an 
actor, among the Principal words of a sentence is this ; the name of the 
actor, when used as the subject of a sentence, controls the construction 
of the sentence, and at the same time through its essential, the actor, 
limits our idea of the action; but, when this name is used as a secoiid 
object, it loses its control in the construction of the sentence, and retains 
its modifying influence only; thus, becoming adjunctive in its use. 



SUBJECTS — DEFINITIONS. 79 



I. Word and Phrase Stibjects. 

Lit. Dep. The word, subject,^ means that which has been put under. 

GO. The Subject of a Simple sentence is a word, or a 
pnrase, naming either the actor ^ or the receiver of an actiort ; 
and, used as the foundation or hasis in the construction of the 
sentence. 

Examples. 

1. The showers refresh the drooping leaves. X Y Z. 
General Analysis. Logically, showers, etc. (See 65, ex., 1.) 
Ehetoricallj, the showers, etc., is a simple sentence; because, etc. 

Its subject is the word, showers. 

Special Analysis. Showers, logically, is the actor or first primary 
idea ; rhetorically, showers is used as the subject of the sentence ; be- 
cause, it names the actor or first primary idea, and has the office of or 
is used as the basis or foundation in the formation of the sentence. It 
is a Word Subject. 

Note I. When students have become familiar with the order of a 
Special Analysis, the terms, logically, rhetorically, may be omitted ; be- 
cause, in giving the Special Analysis, we commence with the logical 
value of the word, and begin its rhetorical use or office with the words, 
used as. Thus, showers is the actor or first primary idea, and is used as 
the subject of the sentence. Under the same circumstances, the logi- 
cal part of the Special Analysis maj^ be omitted. 

2. The drooping leaves are refreshed by the showers. Z Y X. 

General Analysis. As in ex., 1. 

Special Analysis. Logically, leaves is ; rhetorically, leaves is 

used as the subject of the sentence ; because, it names the third primary 
idea or receiver, and has the office of or is used as the basis or founda- 
tion of the sentence. It is a Word Subject. 

Note II. Sentences, used as Definitions, Explanations, etOc, have 
two or more Subjects, called First Subject, Second Subject, etc. 

3. Does John, the carpenter, own this house ? John, the 
carpenter, does own this house. 1 2 3 r=: 1 12 3. 

1 Subject, t, that which ; jeo. has been put or placed ; sub, under. That is, as a 
foundation or basis. 



80 THE RH3JT0EIC OF LANGUAGE. 

General Analysis, Rhetorically, does John^ etc., is a simple sentence 
because it expresses or names a simple thought. 

Special Analysis. The words, John^ car^eniei\ name the same actor 
or first primary idea ; and, are used, synonymously, as subjects of the 
sentence. Jolin^ being X]iq first Subject ; carpenter^ the second Subject. 

4. Was John called the Professor? John was called the 
Professor. The child was called Joseph. 

Written Analysis or Formula. T S f. Translation; T, John^ the 
Professor; S, was called; f, understood. Hence, this formula might be 
written T T S f. 

Special Analysis. John, Professor^ name the receiver or third pri- 
mary idea ; and, are used as the first and second Subjects of the sentence. 

Note III. Two, or more words, naming the same idea, and having 
the same use or office in the sentence, are said to be used in Apposition ; 
or, to be used Synonymously. As, the words, John, carpenter, in ex., 
4 ; in which, the second subject, carpenter, is said to be in apposition 
with the first subject, John ; or, to be used synonymously with John. 

5. Is your brother John, a doctor? My brother John is a 
doctor. 

6. A. wise ruler does not subject a good subject to un- 
necessary taxation. 

7. The subjects of all governments are subject to taxation. 

8. The subject of a narration may not be the subject of a 
sentence. 

9. Is sugar a sweet substance ? Sugar is a sweet sub- 
stance. 

10. Napoleon III., king and author, is a husband, a father, 
a tactician, and a disciplinarian. 

Note IY. The subject of a Simple Sentence is sometimes omitted; 
as, in answer to questions, directions, orders, etc. Thus ;- — 

•11. "What did John do ? Answer. studied his lessons. 

12. Come here. Bring my book to me. 

Note Y. Sometimes our idea of the Action is definite, while our 
idea of the Actor is so indefinite that we cannot name it. In these 
cases, the Subject of the sentence is said to be a Vague or Irdefinite 
Subject, and its place is supphed by the word, it Thus; — 

13, It rains. It snows. It hails. 



COKSTRUCTIOK — ACTIVE, PASSIVE. 81 

14. " Our glorious banner" was our battle-cry. 

General Analysis. Logically, ; rhetorically, " Our glorious 

hanner,^^ was, etc., is a simple sentence; because, etc. Its first and 
■second subjects are ^^ our glorious 'banner,'''' tattle-cry. 

Special Analysis. Logically, " Our glorious banner^'' is a group, used 
as a first primary idea; rhetorically, it is a subject; because, it names 
an actor, and is used as the basis or foundation of the sentence. It is 
a Phrase Subject. 

In like manner, analyze battle-cry. 

Note VI. Phrase Subjects may be analyzed according to the analy- 
sis of Phrases. Thus; — 

" Our glorious banner''^ is an independent phrase. Its principal word 
is banner ; its adjunct words, our, glorious. 

15. Our battle-cry was ''Our glorious banner." 

70. According to the logical character of its Subject^ 
a sentence is either Actively ^ constructed, or it is Passively 
constructed. 

Actively Constructed Sentences. 
Lit Def. The word, actively, ^ means belonging to the actor. 

71. A Sentence is Actiyely constructed^ when its sulject 
names the actor or first jprimary idea. 

Thus, the sentence, fhe showers refresh the drooping leaves, is actively 
constructed ; because, its subject, showers, is logically, the actor or first 
primary idea. 

16. Speaking makes the ready man. 

General Analysis. Rhetorically, speaking, etc., is a simple sentence ; 
because, etc. Ic is actively constructed; because, its subject, speaking, 
names the actor or first primary idea. 

17. Reading makes the intelligent man. 

18. Writing makes the accurate man. 

19. Florists cultivate flowers. 

20. Nearly every plant requires the daylight. 

21. William gave a book to Mary. 

^ Actively, ly, in a way or manner ; we, like ; t, that which, one wHo ; ae — 
s^g, causes, acts, does. 

4* 



82 THE RHETOEIC OF LAXGITAGK 

22. The animals were basking in the sunshine. 

23. They proceeded on then- jonrney. 

24. The people were all in one building. 

Passively Constructed Sentences. 

Lit. Def. The word, ijassively^^ means telonging to the receiver. 

T2. A Sentence is Passively constructed^ ivhen its subject 
names the receiver or third primary idea. 

Thus, the sentence, the drooping leaves are refreshed lyy the shoiuers, is 
passively constructed; because, its subject, leaves, is, logically, the 
receiver or third primary idea. 

25. The ready man is made by speaking. 

General Analysis. The ready man, etc., is a simple sentence; be- 
cause, etc. It i?> passively constructed; because, its subject, ??ia7z, names 
the receiver or third primary idea. 

26. Flowers are cultivated by florists. 

27. Daylight is required by nearly every plant. 

Note YII. A thought of three parts can be expressed in a sentence 
Actively constructed and, also, in a sentence Passively constructed. A 

thought of two parts must always be expressed in a sentence Actively 

constructed. 

28. Sings Fanny good songs? Fanny sings good songs. 

29. Does Fanny sing good songs ? Fanny does sing good 
songs. 

30. Is Fanny singing good songs? Fanny is singing good 
songs. 

31. Are good songs sung by Fanny? Good songs are 
sung by Fanny. 

32. Read Luther good books ? Luther read, etc. 

33. Lows the ox over his fodder ? The ox lows, etc. 

34. Does the ox low, etc. ? The ox does low, etc. 

35. Is the ox lowing, etc. ? The ox is lowing, etc. 

Note YIII. The Subject of a sentence is important for tv:o reasons ; 
first, because, it always names a primary idea ; or, it is either the actor 

^ Passively, irehj. , § =^, ; pas = pat^ has been received. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECTS. 83 

or the receiver ; second^ because it controls the construction of the 
sentence. (See Moods of Sentences.) 

Rules for the Selection of Subjects, 

BuLE I. To construct a sentence Actively^ use^ as the suhjecf, 
the name of the actor or first primary idea of the thought which 
is to he expressed. 

Rule II. To construct a sentence Passively, use, as the subject j 
the name of the receiver or third primary idea of the thought 
which is to be expressed. 

36. The use of Thought Language develops the human 
intellect. The human intellect is developed by the use of 
Thought Language. 

37. The general gave the watch- word, our glorious banner. 
The watch-word, our glorious banner, was given by the general. 

38. At midnight, in his guarded tent, the Turk was dream- 
ing of the hour. 

39. Is thy servant a dog? My right there is none to dis- 
pute. Has the money been demanded from the debtor by 
the creditor? 

40. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood. 

41. John is here. Thomas has gone [to] home. 

42. Is Raffaelle, the Engineer, your brother? Raffaelle, 
the Engineer, is your brother. The horses run. The horses 
do run. The horses are running. 

43. How do you do ? You do do how? How does Sarah 

do ? Sarah does do how ? ^ 

Errors in the Selection of Subjects. 

First Error. Attempts are often made to construct sentences by 
using, as subjects, words naming secondary ideas. Formerly, these 
attempts were very common among " the best speakers,^* and among 
"the best writers" of the Enghsh language. They were seldom or 
never used by the Bomans, or by the Greeks. They are to be con- 
demned, logically, because they always obscure the thought which 



84 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

thej are intended to express ; and, rlietorieallv, because they generally 
require "a mean little word at the end of the sentenced They are con- 
demned by the Rhetoricians both of Ancient and of Modern times, 
Horace says, ''Xor should a mean little word be ailowud to end a 
sentence ; unless, you Avish to degrade the subject by the style." 
" Mordes kcboro/iitur na.scitur ridiculus musy — Ars. Poetica. 

44. Error. " Charles was applied to." 

Charles names neither the actor nor the receiver of the act, wor- 
applied. The expression being intended to say that Charles was re- 
quested, or desired, or asked, or erdreo.ted. etc. In fact, the Avords, Charles 
ivas applied to^ name a Second Part only. The Trhole sentence being 
soni'^':: ■■; npplied to Charles. 1 2. Xo Third part is mentioned, ap is 
the e.'i-^-. vdienwe say. " The surgeon applied a plaster to Charles. EST 

"^A'iitn an error of this kind occurs, the expression shotild be declared 
either not to express a thought^ and hence, not a sentence: or to expre^^ 
the thought erroneously, and hence, to le faulty. It should be corrected 
at once, either by supplying a subject, or by changing the word naming 
the action. 

45. Charles was applied to. 

General Analysis. Charles was, etc., is not a sentence ; because, it 
does not contain a 'thought. Charles was applied to is merely a phrase ; 
principal idea, was applied; secondary, Charles; to, idea of relation. 

Corrected Forms. First; Soraelody applied to Charles. Second; 
Charles was requested, desired, asked, entreated, etc. 

46. John was told the tale. 

General Analysis. Johnvms told^ etc., contains a thought, improperly 
expressed ; hence, it is an incorrect sentence. It is incorrect, because 
it is an attempt to form a sentence on the word, John^ the name of a 
secondary idea. Its proper forms are ; — 

(Subject not expressed) told the tale to John. 

The tale was told to John by . 

47. The tripJ was proceeded with. Incorrect. 

Corrected Form. The trial was continued. proceeded with 

the trial. 

48. William was paid ten dollars. Incorrect. 

49. Jane was spoken to. Incorrect. 

50. The boj was laughed at by the man. Incorrect. 

Corrected Forms. The boy was ridiculed by the man. The boy was 
derided by the man. The man laughed at the boy. 



ERRORS IN SUBJECTS. 85 

51. ^' The second person is the person spoken to." "The 
tl ird person is the person spoken of." Errors. 

Correction. The second person is the person addressed ; the seaond 
person is the narratee. 

Second Error. Sometimes the narrator, having commenced the 
construction of a sentence with a particular word as a subject, sud- 
denly interposes another word as a subject, and then, completes the 
sentence. This is called Breaking or violating the Unity of a Subject. 
(See Chap. Y., Unity of Subjects.) This error may be corrected by re- 
jecting one of the Subjects, and finishing the sentence with reference 
to the other. 

52. The dog^ being rabid, his master shot him. Incorrect. 

First Correction. The dog, being rabid, was shot by his master 
Second Correction. The master shot the dog, because he was rabid. 

53. The stranger, being poor and needy, the people gave 
him money. Incorrect. 

54. The soldier, being wounded, his comrades carried him 
to his tent. Incorrect. 

For Errors in Definitions of Subjects, see Chap. Yl.^ Definitions. 

Note IX. "When a word, apparently a relator, appears at the end of 
a construction, one error surely exists, while three may exitt. Of 
these, one may be a logical, as in the examples given above; another, 
is a rhetorical error. (See Position or Syntax of the Relator.) For the 
third Error, see G-rammar, Prepositions. 

The student should now turn to Chap. II., and give the Special 
Analyses, both logical and rhetorical, through Subjects, changing each 
sentence from its Passive to its corresponding Active form ; and, from 
its Active to its corresponding Passive, when this is possible. 

Exercise. 

1. Look around, and tell, in corresponding Actively and Passively 
constructed simple sentences, the names of what you see. G-ive the 
Special Analysis of each Subject. 

2. In like manner, tell what you hear. Analyze the Subjects. 

3. Name and describe something that you can touch. 

4. Name and describe something that you can taste. 

5. Name and describe something that you can learn in none of these 
ways. 



86 THE RHETORIC OF LANaUAGE. 

6. N'ow repeat each one of these exercises, and put the name of the 
actor, who sees, hears, etc., in each sentence. It maybe your own, or 
it may be another person's name. 

'7. At the next recitation, bring a written exercise of this kind, 
describing something that you have seen, heard, etc. 

8. jSTotice carefully every sentence that you speak, or write ; also, 
every sentence that you hear, or read ; and, examine those that please 
you, to find what element in them gives you pleasure. In like manner, 
examine those that displease you, to find what element or elements in 
them are displeasing. This knowledge will be useful to you as a means 
of self-improvement, if you bear in mind that whatever is acceptable to 
you in another's use of language, ^411 be very likely to be acceptable 
to others in your use of it; and, that whatever is not acceptable to you 
in another's use of language, will be quite as likely not to be acceptable 
■ to others in your use of it. 

Finally, if you succeed in selecting the right words for the subjects 
of the sentences which you construct, you will be quite sure to avoid 
the larger portion of those errors of construction into which the nar- 
rator is quite sure to faU, who is careless in his selections, or who is 
ignorant of the principles on which these selections should be made. 

TJie students may now turn to the selections at the end of this 
Workj and while reading^ select the subject of each sentence which 
',s read. 



PKEDICATES OR AFFIRMERS. 87 



II. Predicates or Affirmers. 

Lit. Def. The word, predicate,''- means that which tells about [some- 
thing]. 

Lit. Def. The word, affirmer,^ means that which makes sure con- 
cerning [something]. 

73. A Predicate or Affirmer is a ivord, or a phrase^ 
naming the action or second primary idea^ and used to ask 
or to declare something concerning the subject 

Note I. Some call the Predicate or Affirmer an Asserter. 

1. The rain /eZ^ heavily last night. 

Special Analysis. Logically, fell is the action or second primary 
idea; rhetorically, /eZHs the predicate of the subject, rain. Fell is a 
predicate or affirmer ; because, it names an action, and is used to declare 
or tell something concerning the subject, rain. It is a "Word Predicate 
or a Word Affirmer ; because, it names the whole of the action. 

2. Does the fire consume the fuel ? The fire does consume the 
fuel. Is the fuel consumed by the fire ? The fuel is consumed 
by the fire. 

Special Analysis. Logically, does consume is the action or second 
primary idea; rhetorically, does consume is used as the predicate or 
affirmer of the subject, fire; because, it names an action or second 
primary idea, and in one case, it asks concerning the subject, fire, and, 
in the other, it declares concerning the subject, fire. Jt is a Phrase 
Predicate ; because, it names a group of ideas. 

In like manner, analyze is consumed, as the Predicate or Affirmer of 
the subject, fuel. 

3. The boys sit on these benches. The table is standing 
by the wall. 

4. Sugar is sweet. Is sugar sweet? Did your brother, 
Kobert, the farmer, raise this grain ? This grain was raised 
by my brother, Eobert, the farmer. 

74. ^ Phrase Predicate consists of two or more Predicates ; 

1 Predicate, e, state of, office of; {a)t, ; die, tells, speaks, declares; pre^ 

about, concerning, 

2 Affirmee. er^ office of, one which ;j^?*m, makes sure, tells; af'^ad^ concern.- 
Ing, toward [something]. 



88 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

of which, one is called the Principal Predicate ; the othefS; 
its Auxiliary Predicates. 

75. The Principal Predicate is the one which names the 
princfipal idea of action. 

5. Asa will be reading the book. The book will be read 
by Asa. 

In these examples, the ^principal predicates are reading^ read. 

Lit. Def. The word, auxiliary,^ means belonging to that which in' 
creases, enlarges. 

T6. An Auxiliary Predicate names an idea of action sub- 
ordinate to another idea of action. 

6. Ralph will have been doing the work. The work will 
have been done by Ralph. 

In this example, the auxiliary predicates are will, have, been ; of 
which, have, and been, are the auxiliaries of the principals, done, or 
doing ; will is an auxiliary of the auxiliary, have. 

7. Can a boy do this work ? Can this work be done by a 
boy? 

8. This house was built by the job. This house is built by 
the job. This house will be built by the job. 

Note II. Sometimes a Subject and its Aflfirmer together are called 
the Affirmation or Predication. 

9. Greatness confers no exemption from care. 

In the above example, greatness confers, is the Affirmation or Predica- 
tion. 

10. The odor of the rose refreshes the sense. 

11. Jane sings beautiful songs. Beautiful songs are sung 
by Jane. 

77. Grenerally, a Predicate or Affirmer may be used 
in three forms ; called, its Simple^ its Einphatic^ and its 
Periphrastic Forms. 

' Auxiliary. {ia)ry^ a state, a condition ; il^ "belonging to ; aux =^ auct^ that 
which increases, enlarges, helps. Compare augment, auxiliary, auction. 



1 



EMPHATIC, PEEIPHRASTIO. 89 

Simple Forms. 

TS. A Predicate is in its Simple Form^ when its principal 
has no part of the predicates^ to be, to do, as auxiliaries. 

12. Lows the ox oyer his fodder? The ox lows over his 
fodder. 

13. Go thou in peace, Hear me, mj friends. 

14. Hail^ smiling May I Comest thou I I will come, I 
shall have come. 

Emphatic Form, 

Lit. Def. The word, emphatic,^ means spoken within, or deep. 

79. A' Predicate is in its Emphatic Form, when its princi- 
pal has apart of the predicate, to do, as an auxiliary. 

15. Does the ox low over his fodder? The ox does low 
over his fodder. 

1 6. Do you love music ? 1 do love music. 

17. Do thou go in peace. Do hear me, my friends. 

18. Didst thou receive it ? Thou didst receive it I He did it 

Periphrastic Form, 
Lit, Def. The word, periphrastic,^ means talking round about. 

80. ^ Predicate or Affirmer is in its Periphrastic Form, 
when its principal predicate has some part of the predicate, to be, 
as an auxiliary. 

19. Will I he studying my lesson? I will he studying my 
lesson. 

20. Will my lesson he studied by me ? 

21. Loved I gold? I loved gold. 

22. Did I love gold? I did love gold. 

23. Was I loving gold? 

1 Emphatic, tie, state of that which ; pha =phra, is spoken ; em^-en^^in, 
within. 

2 Pebipheastio. tic, ; phras, speaks ; peri, round. See CirciLmlocaiUon. 



90 THE EHETOKIC OF LANGUAGE. 

24. Was gold loved by me? Gold was loved by me. 

Note III. Sometimes, the Predicate or Affirmer is the only part of 
the sen cence which is expressed. 

25. Go . Go thou. Go ye. Come . Come thou. 

Come ye. 

26 Go a^^ay. Do go away. Study your lessons. Can 
you study ? Ought John to study these lessons ? 

Note IT. Sometimes the Predicate or Affirmer is understood ; as, in. 
the answers to questions. 

27. Who brought these books ? Who has a book? Ans, 
John . 

28. Is the boy reading the book? The boy is reading the 
book. Was the book read by the boy ? The book was read 
by the boy. 

29. Could Ann have read the tale ? Ann could have read 
the tale. 

30. Could Ann have been reading the tale? Ann could 
have been reading the tale. 

31. Could the tale have been read by Ann? The tale 
could have been read by Ann. 

32. Somebody was building this house. This house was 
built by somebody. 

33. Somebody is building this house. This house is built 
by somebody. 

34. Somebody will be building this house. This house 
will be built by somebody. 

35. The Supreme Court affirmed the judgment. 

36. The man is the affirmer of his own story. 

37. Historians predicate history on past events. 

38. The student attributes the failure of his recitation to 
his ill health. 

Note. The student may now begin with the first example under 
Subjects, and give the Rhetorical Analyses of each sentence, and the 
Special Analysis of its Subject and of its Predicates or Affirmers. 



FIRST OBJECTS. 91 



m. Word and Phrase First Objects. 

Lit. Dbp. The word, dbject^^ means that which has been placed before 
or opposite. 

81. The First Object is a Wordy or a Phrase, naming the 
receiver or third primary idea, and used in a sentence actively 
constructed. 

Examples. 

1. Can man number the stars? Man cannot number the 
stars. 

General Analysis, Rhetorically, can man^ etc., is a simple sentence, 
because, etc. It is actively constructed ; because, etc. Its subject is 
ma7i ; its affirmer is can number ; its first object is the word, stars. 

Special Analysis. Stars is the receiver or third primary idea of the 
thought. It is used as the first object of the predicate, can number ; be- 
cause, it names the receiver or third primary idea, and is used in a 
sentence actively constructed. It is- a Word First Object. 

Note I. In an actively constructed sentence, the name of the receiver 
must be used as the First Object ; but, in a passively constructed sen- 
tence, it must be used as the Subject. Hence, we see that the name of 
the receiver must be used as a First Object, or as a Subject ; and, that 
no First Object can be used in a sentence passively constructed ; and, 
also, that no First Object can be used in a sentence expressing a thought 
of two parts. 

2. The stars cannot be numbered by thee. 

Tn ex., 2, the name of the receiver, stars^ is used as the subject ; and 
therefore cannot be used as the first object That is, the same word, 
naming the same idea, cannot be used in two offices of the same sen- 
tence. "We cannot have " a First Object used as the Subject." 

3. Sebastian Cabot first discovered the eastern coast of 
North America. 

4. The men shouted for their battle-cry, ^' the glorious old 
tanner, ^^ 

Special Analysis. Logically, the glorious old banner^ is a dependent 
group of ideas, used as the receiver of the action, shouted ; rhetorically, 

1 Object, ^, ; jec^ has been put, placed ; o&, opposite, before. 



92 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

it is a phraso used as the first olject of the predicate, shouted. It is a 
Phrase Eirst Object. 

5. The courts object to this testimony. 

6. Wealth is a great object of human pursuit. 

7. Eveiy person should keep some good object in view. 

8. The observation of an object becomes an object lesson. 

9. Did you say, "in the ring? " 

Note II. Sometimes the Eirst Object is understood. 

10. All animals eat . All animals drink . All 

animals eat/ood 

It is plain that, if animals eat, they must eat something. 

11. May John have told this story ? John may have told 
this story. 

12. May John have been telling this story? John may 
have been telling this story. 

Note III. Examples frequently occur, in which a sentence appears 
to have two or more First Objects, when, in reality, one of these is a 
Eirst Object, and may always be known by the fact, that it names the 
receiver of the action ; while, the other is a Second Object, whose 
relator is understood. (See Second Objects, Relators.) 

13. William sent me a book. 

In this example, hook is the first ohject; because, it names the re- 
ceiver of the action, sent, and is used in a sentence actively constructed ; 
while, me names an idea subordinate to the action, sent. Book receives 
the action, sent ; while, 7ne receives the hook, the thing which is sent. 

If the sentence be passively constructed, the' difference between 
these Objects becomes more apparent. Eor, if took be used as the 
subject, our sentence is passively constructed, and correctly. But, if 
me [ I ] be used as the subject, the expression is incorrect. (See Sekc- 
tio'/i of Subjects.) Thus ; — 

14. A book was sent to me by William. A book was 
sent me by William. 

15. I was sent a book by William. Incorrect 



RELATOKa 93 



IV. Relators. 

82. -A Relator is a word naming an idea of relation^ and 
used to show the relation of its subsequent to an antecedent term, 
(See Phrases, Relators.) 

Examples. 

1. In the same year, Hudson's ship, the Half-Moon, was 
also sent to the Hudson River on a like errand hy the company. 

General Analysis. (Let the student give the General Analysis.) 

Special Analysis. Logically, in is one of the several ideas of rela- 
tion, which the subordinate idea, year^ has to its principal, was sent; 
rhetorically, in is used to show the relation of its subsequent term, 
yea7\ to its antecedent term, was sent. Between the idea of action, was 
sent, and its subordinate, year, {was sent, year,'] many ideas of relation 
naturally arise; as, before, during, after, about; hence, the one intended 
by the narrator must be 'expressed in order that it may be definitely 
knov^n by the narratee. 

To is one of the ideas of relation which the subordinate idea, river, 
has to the second primary idea, was sent. 

On is one of the ideas of relation between the subordinate idea, 
errand, and its principal idea, was sent. 

By is the idea of relation between the actor or first primary idea, 
company, and the second primary idea, was se7ii, and is used to show 
the relation of its subsequent term, company, to the predicate, was sent. 

2. The affairs of the states are the states' affairs. 

Special Analysis. Of is the idea of relation between states, a sub- 
ordinate idea of a group, and its principal, affairs, and is used as a 
relator to show the relation of the adjunct word, states, to its principal 
word, affairs. 

3. The relator of this narration is not a relative of mine. 

4. The relation of a story is the narration of a story. 

5. A sailor relates the narrative of his voyages. 

6. The study of language relates to all our other studies. 

83 In Simple Sentences, Relators are used in two 

ways ; — 

84. First As in all other languages. Relators are 



94 THE RHETORIC OF LAXG-UAGE. 

used to show tlie relations of adjunctiye words to 
predicates or a£BLrmers. 

7. This building was erected ly its founder on that very spot. 

Special Analysis. LogicallT, ly is an idea of relation between the 
first primary idea or actor, founO.er. and v:as erected, the second primary 
idea or action; rhetoricaUy, ly shows the relation of its" subsequent 
term, founder, to tlie predicate. v:as erected. 

On is the idea of relation between spot, a subordinate idea, and its 
principal idea, icas erected. It is used to show the relation of its sub- 
sequent term, spot^ to the predicate, v:as erected. 

XoTE I. The Relator is sometimes omitted, when its subsequent 
term is placed before the first object. (This omission has led to the 
error noticed under first objects, Xote III.) 

8. Asa paid — T\^illiam the money. Asa paid the money 
to William. 

XOTE II. The word, ly, should be used as the Relator, when the 
subsequent term is the name of the actor. The use of the word, witli^ 
to show this relation is not proper. In some figurative expressions, ly 

should be substituted for icitli. (See Chap. T., Fig. Lang., Personifi- 
cation. ) 

9. The horse killed the man. The engine killed the man. 
The man was killed hy the horse. The man was killed hy 
the engine. 

In these esamples, if icifh be substituted for ly, we shaU have ; — 
The man was killed icitli the horse ; that is, the man and the horse 

were both killed together, or by the same cause. 

The man was killed icitli the engine ; which is nonsense : unless, 

something killed both the man and the engine. 

10. The enemy slew the people with the sword. The 
people were slain with the sword by the enemy. 

By a rhetorical figure, called Personification, the means or instru- 
meut ^vitJi which an act is done is sometimes represented as the actor 
or doer. Thus, if the instrument, svjord, be represented as the actor. 
enemy, we would substitute hy for with; as, the ^Dcople were slain by 
the sword. In such cases, the name of the actor should not be ex- 
pressed. 

§S. Second. As in PliraseSj tlie Relator is used to show 
the relation of an adjunctive word to a principaL which 
is not a predicate. 



RELATORS. 95 

11. The den of a thief is a thief's den. 

Note III. The word, q/j is probably the only one which can really be 
used to name the relation of an adjunctive to a principal, which is not 
an affirmer. Other words may appear to be so used, while, in reality, 
they are not. Thus; — 

12. The man, in the moon, must have been made of moon- 
shine. 

In this example, in appears to show the relation of moon to man , 
but, in reality, it is the result of a contraction of the sentence, the man 
who lives in the moon, etc. 

13. In the beginning, the earth was without form. 

14. The horse ran along the road, through the woods, into 
the field. 

Note IY. A Relator and its subsequent terra form a dependent 
Phrase, which is called a Prepositional Phrase or an Adverbial Phrase. 

15. In what' place is my hat? Where is my hat? In this 
place is your hat. Here is your hat. In that place is youi 
hat. There is your hat. 

Note Y. The subsequent term of a Relator may be understood ; as, 

16. The persons within the church were much disturbed 
by the persons without [the church]. 

Note YI. The Relator should always precede its subsequent term ; 
aSj — 

17. Heaven hides the book of fate from all creatures. 

18. Heaven, /rom all creatures, hides the book of fate. 

19. IVo7n all creatures, heaven hides the book of fate. 

20. To whom did you give the book? 
Incorrect Whom did you give the book to ? 

2 1 . About whom are you talking ? 

Common Error. Whom are you talking about? Who are you 
talking about ? 

Note YII. In the expression, Charles luas applied to, the word, 
Charles, although apparently a subject, is, in reality, the subsequent 
term of the relator, to, which should, of course, be placed before its 



96 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

subsequent. Thus, the expression becomes, io Charles was applied^ 
which is simply a phrase. 

Note YIII. Such erroneous expressions as the following are fre- 
quently found ; — 

22. I have often met loith specimens of this kind. Error, 

23. Specimens of this kind are often met with. Error. 

In these examples, with is apparently a Eelator, having the affirmer, 
met, for its antecedent ; but, in reality, it is not a Eelator ; because, 
firsts it does not name an idea of relation; second, it has no subsequent 
term. The expression should be, — 

" I have often /owTzc^ specimens of this kind;" "specimens of this 
kind are often found.^^ 

Met and found refer to the manner in which two or more come to- 
gether. Met refers to two or more coming together from different 
points; as, — 

24. John and William met at the cross-roads. I met my 
friend in the street. The armies met on the field of battle. 
The foes met face to face. 

Found is the act of one party coming across or discovering another ; 

as,— 

25. I found my friend in the hotel. JjjqW. fou7id specimens 
of fossils in the rocks. Men find gold in the sand. 

26. The people assembled in the church. 

27. The people met in the church. 

" The people met together in the church." Error. 

28. As soon as the people found themselves in a lecture- 
room, they began to demand a lecture. 

Note IX. In regard to errors in the use of Eelators or Prepositions, 
see Grammar. 

29. The top of the mountain is the mountain's top. 

30. Mary's father is the uncle of John. John's uncle is 
the father of Mary. 

31. The land was ploughed by the farmer in the autumn, 
under great difficulties in a workmanlike manner with a team 
of ten pairs of cattle. 



SECOND OBJECTS. 97 



Y. Word and Phrase Second Objects. 

86. A Second Object is a Word, or a Phrase^ geiierally 
naming an idea^ subordinate to the action ; hut^ sometimes, naming 
the actor itself; and, tosed as the adjunctive of a predicate or 
affirmefi\ 

Examples. 

1. At a given signal, the forces of the enemy were led from 
their camp into the plain by their general, T S F. 

General Analysis. Ehetorically, at a given signal^ etc., is a simple 
sentence, passively constructed. Its principal words are, forces^ were 
led. Its relators are, at, of, from, into, by. Its adjunctives are, a, given^ 
the^ the, enemy, their, camp, the, plain, their, general; and, of these 
adjunctives, the second objects are signal, camp, plain, general. 

Special Analysis. Signal, logically, is an idea subordinate to the 
action, were led ; rhetorically, signal is a second object of the predicate, 
iue7'e led, to which its relation is shown by the relator, at. It is a second 
object, because it names an idea subordinate to the action, and its rela- 
tion to the predicate is shown by a relator. 

In like manner, analyze camp, plain. 

General is the actor or first primary, and is used as the second object 
of the predicate, luere led. By shows its relation to the predicate, ive7^e 
led. It is a second object, because it names the actor or first primary 
idea, and is used as an adjunctive, etc. 

Note I. In the construction of a simple sentence, the name of the 
actor or first primary idea may be used as the subject, and it may be 
used as the Second Object, and it must be used in one or the other of 
these two offices, if used at all. 

When the name of the actor is the subject, the sentence is actively 
constructed; but, when the name of the actor is the Second Object, the 
sentence is passively constructed. 

When used as a subject, the name of the actor, through the idea 
wliich it names, influences our idea of the action; and, as a subject, 
controls the construction of the sentence. When used as a Second Ob- 
ject, it loses its controlling influence in the sentence, and retains its 
modifying influence only. 

2. The me7i build the houses. The women prepare the food. 
The children may enjoy comfortable homes. 



98 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

3. The houses are built by the men. The food is prepared 
by the women. Comfortable homes may be enjoyed by the 
children. 

4. George Stephenson invented the railway locomotive 
engine. The railway locomotive engine was invented by 
George Stephenson. 

Note II. The relation of a Second Object to its predicate is always 
shown by a relator, which is either expressed or understood. 

5. During the last year^ many valuable lives were lost 
through accident. Last year^ many valuable lives were lost 
through accident. 

6. The train moved at the rate of twenty miles in an hour. 
The train moved twenty miles an hour. 

Note III. In the Enghsh language, a Second Object, naming the 
actor or first primary idea, must have its relation shown by the relator, 
Ify. (See Relators, Note II.) 

7. Your new book pleases our students very much. Our 
students are very much pleased hy your new book. 

According to usage, this sentence, passively constructed, becomes ; 
" Our students are very much pleased luitli your new book." This is 
erroneous. 

Note IV. T7hen the Second Object is placed between the First Ob- 
ject and its predicate, its relator is sometimes omitted. (See Relators^ 
and Ellipsis of Language.) 

S. The man gave a dollar to the toy. The man gave — 
the hoy a dollar. 

9. The teacher taught grammar to his pupils. The teacher 
taught [to] his pupils grammar. 

Note Y. This change, in the place of the Second Object, and the omis- 
sion of its relator have led some to suppose that these Second Objects 
have thus become First Objects ; hence, the following erroneous state- 
ment, — 

'' Yerbs of teaching, giving, etc., govern two Objectives, the one of a 
person, and the other of a thing." 

Did the author of this statement intend that the term, person should 
include the term, horses^ in the following example ? — 



SECOND OBJECTS. 99 

10. The drivers gave [to] their horses the lash. The dri- 
vers gave the lash to their horses. 

87. Second Objects, according to the ideas which, 
they name, limit the action or second primary in regard 
to its cause hy wMch^ to its cause on account of which ^ to 
its quantity^ quality^ manner^ means or instrument^ time^ 
place ^ relation^ order ^ etc. 

11. A fort was built in great haste by the men. 

Special Analysis. Rhetorically, men is a second object^ showing the 
cause or actor hy which the action was produced. By shows its relation. 
Men is a second object; because, it names the actor or first primary idea, 
and is the subsequent of a relator ; or, because it names the actor and 
is used in a sentence passively constructed. 

Haste is a second object of manner ; in shows its relation to luas huilt. 
Haste is a second object^ because it names a subordinate idea of the 
predicate, was built^ and is the subsequent term of the relator, in. 

12. In the same year, Hudson's ship, the Half-Moon, was 
also sent to the Hudson Etver on a li!ke errand by the com- 
pany. 

Special Analysis. Year, rhetorically, is a second object, showing the 
time of the action, was sent; in shows its relation. It is a second ob- 
ject, because, etc. 

liiver is a second object, showing the place whither of the action, was 
sent. Its relation is shown by to. 

Errand is 2. second object, showing the cause on account of which the 
action was done. It is the subsequent term of the relator, on. 

Company is a second object, showing the cause by which the action 
was done. Its relator is by. 

13. Human happiness is the im.mediato object of life. 

Note YI. Sometimes, by a figure of speech called Fersonificaiion, 
the actions and quaUties of an actor or first primary idea are attributed 
to a subordinate idea. In these instances, the name of the subordinate 
is used as if it were the name of a primary idea, and the name of the 
primary is not expressed. 

14. The enemy slew the people with the sword. The 
people were slain with the sword by the enemy. 

If the action of the actor, enemy, be attributed to the instrament, 
^mord., with which the action was done, the word, sword, must be used 



100 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

instead of the word, enemy, and we have, for the passive expression 
of this thought; — 

15. The people were slain by the sword. 

16. The farmer, with a mowing machine, was cutting the 
grass. The grass was cut by the farmer with his mowing 
machine. The grass was cut by the mowing machine. 

Note YII. Second Objects with their adjuncts and relators are 
frequently contracted into a single word; as, — 

17. Henry came m 7za.s2^e. HeiiTj csbme hastily. The letter 
was receiyed t?i due time. The letter was duly receiyed. 

18. The boys behayed m a vevj rude manner. The boys 
behayed yery rudely. The teacher spoke in a liteasant v;ay. 
The teacher spoke pleasantly. 

19. The wall is three feet in its height The wall is, in its 
heifjld, three feet. In its height^ the wall is three feet. The 
wall is three feet high. 

XoTE Till. A Relator and a Second Object form a dependent phrase, 
which is called a Prepositional Phrase or an Adveruial Phrase ; as, in 
time^ in due time, in a very pleasant manner. 

20. Trilliptm came very early in the morning. T\"^iHiam staid 
until verij late in the evening. 

jSTote IX. Second Objects are sometimes understood or omitted. 

21. The people within the church were disturbed b}^ the 
people without . 

22. Ships sail from one port to anothei* [port]. 

23. The ultimate object of human life will be explained in 
eternity. 

24. Does a hungry man object to the reception cX liis food? 

25. The mosquitoes annoy the inhabitants. The inhabi- 
tants are annoyed hy the mosquitoes. 

" The inhabitants are greatly annoyed with the mo? quit ^es." 
Query. "What annoys the mosquitoes ? 



WOBD AND PHRASE ADJUNCTS. 101 



VI. Word and Phrase Adjuncts. 

Lit. Def. The word, adjunct,^ means that which has been joined to 
[another]. 

88. -An Adjunct is a Word^ or a Phrase^ naming a sub- 
ordinate idea, or group, and used as the adjunctive of a subject, a 
predicate, an object, or of another adjunct 

Examples. 

1. A few well directed efforts frequently produce the greatest 
event of a man^s life. F S T. 

General Analysis. Rhetorically, a few well, etc., is a simple sen- 
tence. Its principal words are efforts, produce, events. Its relator, of. 

Its adjuncts are a few luell directed, frequently, the greatest, a mom^s 
life ; of which, frequently is a contracted second object ; while, the re- 
maining words are adjuncts only. 

Special Analysis. A, logically, is a subordinate idea ; rhetorically, 
it is an adjunct of the adjunct, few. It is an adjunct, because it 
names a subordinate idea, and is joined to a word which is not an 
affirmer. 

In like manner, analyze the remaining adjuncts ; except frequently. 

Frequently may be analyzed as a contracted second object ; or, as a 
second object adjunct; or, as an adjunct in form, and a second object 
in its meaning. Finally, no difficulty is involved by calling contracted 
second objects. Adjuncts. 

Note I. A comparison of second objects and Adjuncts shows, that 
second objects are Adjunctives of predicates, and Subsequent Terms of 
relators; while. Adjuncts are Adjunctives of subjects, of objects, and 
of Adjuncts ; and are not, with one exception, Subsequents of relators. 
Hence, the antecedent of a second object, related by of, is always a pred- 
icate ; while, the antecedent of an Adjunct, related by of, is never a 
predicate. 

2. The old man thought of the home of his childhood. The 
old man thought of his childhood's home. 

In this example, home is a second object, because its antecedent, 
thought^ is a predicate or affirmer; while, childhood is an adjunct, be- 
cause its antecedent, home, is not a predicate. 

^ Adjunct, t, yjunc^jur.g^ joined; ady to. 



102 THE EHETOKIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Note II. !"f a word, formed by contracting a second object, with its 
Adjuncts and relators, did not occur ; or, if, when one does occur, it were 
resolved as a second object phrase ; then, every second object would be 
an Adjunctive of a predicate, to which its relation would be shown by 
a relator ; and, every Adjunct word would be the Adjunctive of a word 
not a predicate, to which its relation, with one exception, would not be 
shown by a relator. 

89. The relatio'fis of Adjunct words to their princi- 
pals may be shown in four ways ; first, by jposition ; 
second, by relators; thn"d, by the apostrophe^ or the 
hyphen ; fourth, logically or by the meanings of the 
Adjunct. 

9®. First When the relation of an Adjunct word to 
its principal is shown hj position only, the Adjunct gen- 
erally precedes its principal. 

3. A really true Eaan abhors all subterfuges. A very large 
quantity of fruit is annually consumed in the city of New 
York. 

4. The very brilliant plumage of the various birds of the 
tropical regions of the earth presents a great variety of bril- 
liantly varied colors. 

91. Secaad. When the relation of an Adjunct to its 
principal is shown by a relator^ the Adjunct is placed 
after its principal. 

5. The parents of these children are very fond of wealth. 

6. Many people are quite incapable of mental exertion. 

99. Third. When the relation of an Adjunct to its^- 
principal is shown by an apostrophe^ or by a hyphen ^^ 
the Adjunct is placed before its principal. 

7. Ellen^s friends are members of the Mechanics^ Society. 

8. The loot-jack was lying on a very careless man's box of 
fishing-tackle. 

9S. Fourth When the relation of an Adjunct to its 
principal is shown logically or by its meaning only,, the 



WORD AND PHRASE ADJUNCTS. 103 

Adjunct is sometimes placed before, but generally after 
its principal. 

9. Oh, maiden /a2V, where art thou going? 

10. Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he sat alone; a sceptered 
hermit. 

94. Adjuncts, according to the ideas which they name^ 
limit their principal words or phrases as to quantity^ 
quality^ manner^ means or instrument^ time^ place^ re- 
lation^ etc. 

(In describing the following Adjuncts^ the student should classify the 
idea and, also, name its relation to its principal.) 



Quantity. 

95. Quantity emhraces extension, or size, numher, weighty 
ratio, etc. 

11. Two heads are better than one [headl. 

Special Analysis. Two, logicaUy, is a subordinate idea of quantity, 
having a natural relation to its principal, heads; rhetorically, two is 
used as an adjunct of the subject, heads. 

12. Xz'^^^Ze waste makes great want. 

13. "Think ^mce and speak once." 

14. ''A man is a man for all that" [thing]. 

15. Many things lawful are not [things] expedient. 



Quality, 

9G. Quality emhraces such properties as color, sound^ 
odor, flavor, temperature, form^ exercise, etc. 

1 6. A pleasant sound delights the ready ear. 

Special Analysis. Pleasant is a subordinate idea of quality, having 
a natural relation to its principal, sound ; and is used, in the sentence, 
as an adjunct of the subject, sound. 

17. A foolish woman is clamorous. 

18. A bright red color contrasts beautifully with the deep 
green color of the grass. 



104 THE RHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Manner. 
@7. Maxxer embraces lioio^ in ivhat way^ etc. 

19. He assented cheerfully. 

Special Analysis. Cheerfully is a subordinate idea of manner^ having 
a natural relation to its principal, assented ; and is used, in the sentence, 

as an adjunct of the affirmer, assented. 

20. The pupils behaved properly. 

Time. 

98. Ti:\iE embraces duration^ when, then, etc. 

21. The work was finished seasonably. 

Special Analysis. Seasonally is a subordinate idea of time, having 
a natural relation to its principal, v: as finished ; and is used, in the sen- 
tence, as an adjunct of the predicate, v:as finishedj, 

22. Formerly, a gmde-230st had been erected on this very 
spot. 

23. It was then. It is now. It shall be hereafter. 

Order. 

99. Ordek erabraces succession, rank, degree, etc. 

24. Those who came/r^ left last. 

Special Analysis. First is a subordinate idea of order, having a 
natural relation to its principal, ca7/ze; and is used, in the seutence, as 
an adjunct of the affirmer, came. 

25. The upper town is on the top of the hilL 
20. The lower town is at the foot of the hilh 

Place. 

100. Place erabraces locality, ])osition, jpoird, etc. 
27. Here is the spot. There is your hat. 

Special Analysis. Here is a subordinate idea of locality, having an 
incidental relation to its principal, is; and is used, in the sentence, as 
an adjunct of the affirmer, is. 



WORD AISTD PHRASE ADJUNCTS. 105 

28. This book belongs to that pupil. These books belong 
to those pupils. This book belongs to me. 

Special Analysis. This is a subordinate idea of place^ having an in- 
cidental relation to its principal, 'booh ; and, is used as an adjunct of the 
subject, hook. 

Relation, 

101. Relation embraces references to ideas^ repetitions of 
ideas^ qtoestions^ usages^ etc. 

29. Question. WAo5e book is this ? Answer. This book is 
mine. 

Special Analysis. Whose names a subordinate idea of the relation 
between its principal, look, and the repetition of the idea, in another 
thought, used as an answer to the question. It is used as an adjvmct 
of the subject, hook. 

30. Which hat is mine ? This hat is yours. 

31. What [thing] do you wish? I wish my hat. 

32. Where did you go ? I went to town. 

33. Wlien did you return? I returned this morning. 

Note III. Adjuncts, which show by their meaning, that their prin- 
cipal words are also found in other sentences, are called Relative Ad- 
juncts. 

The principal word of a Relative Adjunct is sometimes called its Con- 
sequent or Subsequent; while, the same word in another sentence is called 
the Antecedent of the Relative Adjunct. (See Modes of Connecting 
Glauses^ and Designative Adjectives used Relatively.) 

34. Which of these roads leads to Boston? This road leads 
to Boston. 

Which is a relative adjunct, whose consequent or subsequent is roo.ds. 
It also refers to its antecedent^ road, in the sentence, this road leads to 
Boston. 

35. Here is a haystack. There is a cornfield. 

36. There is a cart-horse before a horse-cart. 

37. A few well directed efforts frequently produce great 
changes in the events of a man's life. 

Special Ultimate Analysis. A, rhetorically, is an adjunct of quan'-.lty^ 
belonging to the adjunct, few. 

Few is an adjunct of quantity, belonging to the subject, efforts, 
5* 



106 THE RHETORIC OF LAKGrUAGE. 

Well is an adjunct of lucrnutr. belonging to the adjunct, diredecL 
Directed is an adjunc: of ruOjuLtr, belonging to the subject, efforts. 
Frequently is an adjunct of relation, belonging to the predicate, pro* 
duce. 

Great is an adjunct of quaiiiify. belonging to the first object, change. 
Tlie is an adjuuct of pJuce. belonging to the second object, events. 
A is an adjunct of civxiutiiij, belonging to the adjunct, man^s. 
Mans is an adjunct of qucdity, belonging to the adjunct, life. 
Life is an adjunct of qucdity. belonging to the adjunct, events. 

General Imraediaie Analysis. Rhetorically, a few luell directed^ etc., 
is a simple sentence ; because, etc. Its immediate elements are the 
subject 23hrase, a few icell directed efforts ; the predicate phrase, /re- 
qutntly produce in the evtrds of a rnau's life: and, the first object phrase, 
{jr tat changes. The subject phrase, a fevj iv ell directed efforts, is an in- 
dependent compound phrase : because, it contains an entire part of a 
thought. Its principal word, efforts, is the subject of the sentence ; to 
which, belong the two simple phrases, a feio. ivell directed. Its predicate 
phrase, frequently p'roduce in the events of arnarrs life^ is an independent 
■' compound phrase, having, as its principal word, the predicate, pro- 
duce; the adjunct \\'OTdj frequently, used instead of the adjunct phrase, 
on many occasions ; the dependent compound phrase, in the events of a 
man^s life. Its first object phrase, great changes, is a simple independent 
plii'ase. ha^fing. as its principal word, the first object, changes ; and, as 
its subordinate, great. 

XOTE lY. Sometimes a word is used simply to commence an ex- 
pression, with or without any definite logical use. A word so used is 
caUed an Inceptive Adjunct^ and is said to be used Inceptively; that isy 
. to make a beginning. Sometimes, also, a word is used to fiU out a state* 
menu. A word so used is caUed an Expletive Adjunct, and is said to 
be used Expletively ; that is, to fill up. 

Inceptives and Expletives should be used with great caution, as they 
ai^e seldom necessary, are generaUy inelegant, and always obscure th© 
narration. 

38. There is a man here. 
Correct Form. Here is a man. 

39. How many acres are there in this field? 
Correct Form. How many acres are in this field? 

40. How many trees are there in that lot? 

Note Y. Sometimes an Adjunct is understood. 

41. The knife is worth a dollar. The knife is the worth of 
a di:»llar. 



WORD AND PHRASE ADJUNCTS. 107 

Miscellaneous Examples. 

1. "William's dog has tora John's coat. 

2. General Putnam captured Fort Ticonderoga. 

3. In the height of passion, he slew his friend. 

4. "That shook Cecropia's pillared state." 

5. The most persevering will, very generally, be the most 
successful man. 

6. I will send the former rains. 

7. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood I 

8. Henry's grandfather is the father of Sarah. 

9. The grandfather of Henry is Sarah's father. 

10. Is a dove's nest a nest of doves? 

11. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

12. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

13. The State of New Hampshire has a population of 
226,000 souls. 

14. $|- has a greater value than four- elevenths of a dollar. 

15. A third part of a dollar is equivalent to 33-J- cents. 

16. The brightest colors are not always the most enduring. 



108 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Personators. 

Lit. Def. The word, personator,^ means the office of one who speaks 
through [something]. 

iOS. A Personator is a word namrng an actor^ a re- 
ceiver, or a sicbordmate idea, and used for ease and for eu]3liony 
instead of a word, or of a phrase ; which is called the Antecedent 
of the Personator. 

Note I. Personators are sometimes called Substitute Words. The 
office of the personator, being merely to supply the place of one or 
more words already having an office in the sentence, is secondary in 
comparison with the offices of these words. 

Examples. 

1. Teacher. What did John do with Jane's books? 
Pupil. He put tJiem with his own into her brother's desk. 

Special Analysis. Logically, he is the actor ; rhetorically, he is the 
personator of the subject, John. He is a personator, because it names 
the actor, and is used in the place of a subject. 

Them names the receiver, and is used as the parsonator ; because, 
etc. 

Sis names an idea subordinate to dooks, and personates John^s, an 
adjunct of hooks. 

Her names an idea subordinate to hrother^s, and personates Jane s an 
adjunct of the adjunct, brother^ s. 

"Without personators, this example reads as follows ; — 

2. John put Jane's books with John's into Jane's brother's 
desk. 

Note II. Personators are not absolutely necessary in the construc- 
tion of a sentence ; nevertheless, they are convenient for the narrator, 
and pleasing to the narratee. Children learn the use of the Personator 
very slowly ; because, its use is so artificial. Hence, we often hear, 
"Johnnie wants Johnnie's stick," instead of, '-/want ray stick." 

' Peesonatoe. or, office of; (a)t, that ^yhich; son, sound, speaks; jje/', tiirouijh, 
by. Anciently, play-actors wore masks, resembling the persons whose characters 
they represented ; hence, speaking a part through a mask came to be called per- 
sonating a character. As the actor spoke through his mask, so, by comparison, a 
word seems to I'peak through another word, representing it and standing in its place. 



PERSONATOKS. 109 

3. Teacher. Eugene, have you studied your lessons ? 
Eugene. I have studied all my lessons. 

Special Analysis. You names the actor, and is used as the yer- 
sonator of the subject, Eugene. Tt is a personator ; because, etc. 

Your names a subordinate idea, and is used to personate Eugene- s^ 
an adjunct of lessons. 

I names the actor, and is used as the persoriaior of the subject, 
Eugene. 

My names a subordinate idea, and is used to personate Eugene^s^ an 
adjunct word of lessons. 

103. Personators, according to their formation^ are 
Simple^ and Compound, 

1 04:. A Simple Personator is a single word. 

10£{. A Compound Personator is a Simple Personator with 
one of the suffixes^ self, selves, own. 

4. The man, himself, was the partner of his wife's uncle. 

5. We are fully determined to make our own laws. 

6. We, the people of Binghamton, do most respectfully 
petition your honorable body. 

7. Are you all in your places ? We are all in our places. 

8. Are they correct in their opinions of themselves ? 

9. A part of your apples have been put into the box with 
mine. 

10. Do I attend to my business ? Dost thou attend to thy 
business ? Does he attend to his business ? Do they attend 
to their business ? ■ . 

11. We shall be rejoicing with them. They shall be ever- 
more praising thee. 

12. Your harps, ye trembling saints, down from the willows 
take. 

13. Redoubled be her tears ; its cords are riven. It soft- 
ened men of iron mould. 

N. B. — The student may now study the examples in the Tahle^ 
given on the next page. It will he well to make this Table very 
familiar. 



110 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 



The following table shows what words of the English language are 
used as Personators, and their uses or offices in the sentence ; — 

TABLE OF PERSONATORS. 
I. Peesonatoes of the Names of Naerators. 

Simple Personators, 

1. Narrator, /have before me a part of my books. A part 
of mine may be a part of me. 

2. Narrators. We have before us a part of our books. A 
part of ours may be a part of us. 

Compound Personators. 

3. Narrator. I, myself^ have before myself 2^^ part of my own 
books, or a part of mine own books. A part of my own, or 
a part of mine own may be a part of myself. 

4. Narrators. "We, ourselves^ have before ourselves a part of 
our own books. A part of our own may be a part of our- 
selves. 

II. Peesonatoes of the Names of Naeeatees. 
Simple Personators. 

5. Narratee. Thou hast before tliee a part of tliy books. A 
part of thine may be a part of thee ; or, 

6. Narratee. You have before you a part of your books. 
A part of yours may be a part of you. 

7. Narratees. Ye or you have before you a part of your 
books. A part of yours may be a part of you. 

Compound Personators. 

8. Narratee. Thou, thyself hast before thyself a part of thy 
own^ or a part of thine own books. A part of thine own may 
be part of thyself; or, 



TABLE OF PERSOKATOKS. Ill 

9. Narratee. You, yourself^ have before yourself a part of 
your own books. A part of your own may be a part of yourself, 

10. Narratees. Ye or you, yourselves^ have before yourselves 
a part of yoiir own books. A part of your own may be a part 
of yourselves. 



III. Peksonatoes of Names BELONGiNa neithek to 
Narrators nor to Narratees. 

Simple Personators. 

11. Narration^ about a Boy, He has before him a part of 
his books. A part of his may be a part of him. 

12. Narration^ ahout a Girl. She has before her a part of 
her books. A part of hers may be a part of Aer. 

13. Narration^ about a Booh. It has in it a part of its leaves. 
A part of its leaves may be a part of it. 

14. Narration,, about Boys and Girls. They have before 
them a part of their books. A part of theirs may be a part of 
them. 

15. Narration^ about Boohs. They have in them parts of 
their leaves. A part of theirs may be a part of them. 

Compound Personators. 

16. iV"., about a Boy, He, himself has before himself 2u part 
of his own books. A part of his own may be a part of himself, 

17. iV., about a Girl. She, herself has before herself^ part 
of her own books. A part of her own may be a part of herself 

18. N.^ about a Booh. The book, itself has in itself a part 
of its own leaves. A part of itself may be a part of itself 

19. N.^ about Boys and Girls. They, themselves^ have be- 
fore themselves a part of their own books. A part of their own 
may be a part of themselves: 

20. iV"., about Boohs. The books, themselves^ have in them- 
selves parts of ^Ae^V own leaves. A part of their own may be 
a part of themselves. 



112 THE RHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Note III. Personators are sometimes used as Incentives or Incep^ 
tively, and sometimes as Expletives or Exjoletively. 

14. How lightly she trips it o'er the lawn. 

15. 'Tis sweet to hear the sound of Adria's gondolier. 

16. Play-actors are personators of historic characters. 

17. The most successful personators of Shakspeare's char> 
acters are called the best actors. 

18. A person's spirit is the inhabitant of that person's 
body. 

19. Personators personate other words 

Incorrect Uses of Personators. 

EiRST Error. The first error in the use of Personators, is the at- 
tempt to use a personator as an adjunct ; as, them men, them horses^ 
them^ things ; for, those men, those horses, those things. 

Second Error. Placing a Personating word between a subject and 
its predicate ; as, Mary, she said it ; the tree, it grows ; for^ Marj said 
it, the tree grows, etc. 

Third Error. Using a personator when it is neither more con- 
venient nor euphonious than its antecedent. In these instances, the 
Personator frequently renders the expression ambiguous. 

20. Teacher. What is the Earth ? 

Pupil It is the planet, etc., meaning the Earth is the 
planet, etc. 

EouRTH Error. Usage, no matter how prevalent, no matter how 
ancient, can ever sanction or even make good the expression, it is me ; 
because, we must not say me is it, as the equivalent of / am it, or its 
equivalent, it is I. (See Grammar, Cases of Subjects.) 

21. Was it I? It was I. Can it be? It can be. Is it 
I? ItisL 



EXCLAMATIVES. H'^ 



Exclamatives. 

Lit. Def. The word, exclamative,''- means like that which calls out 

9 

106. An ExcLAMATiYE ts a Worcl^ or a Phrase^ expressing 
an idea^ or a group^ accompanied ly a passion or emotion ; and^ 
when used with a sentence^ shows that the narrator^ s passions or 
emotions are excited hy the narration. 

Note I. Exclamatives are sometimes called Interjections^ and some- 
times, Ejaculations, 

Note II. When the Exclamative is prompted by a real feeling, 
emotion or passion, it is a very effective part of speech; but, when 
feigned, or too often used, it loses its force, and becomes tiresome. 

Examples. 

1. Oh, that mine enemy had done this thing! 

Special Analysis. Oh^ essentially, is a strong desire or wish. Rhet- 
orically, Oh is used to show the feeling which the narration excites in 
the narrator. 

2. Star of the twilight ! Beautiful star ! 

Special Analysis. Star of the tiuilight! is an exclamative phrase, 
showing that the star is addressed by the narrator. (See Chap. Y., Fig- 
urative language, Personification.) Its principal word is star ; its ad- 
junctive words, the^ twilight; its word of relation, of. 

Note III. The Exclamative is usually analyzed by simply stating 
the kind of emotion, etc., which it expresses ; but, each word of an Ex- 
clamative phrase should be analyzed as if the expression were not an 
Exclamative. 

3. The boy exclaimed, '' dear! dear!" 

4. The exclamations, "Oh! " "Ah! " escaped from each 
hearer. 

5. "What a wretch !" I exclaimed. 

6. The mother repeated the simple exclamation, there! 
there ! there I 

1 Exclamative. ative^ ; clam^ calls, sliouts ; ex, out. 



114 THE RHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Miscellaneous Examples in the Offices of "Words. 

XOTE. In analyzing the following examples, the student should 
rfionstantly keep in mind, that the office of a word depends on two things ; 
firsts the idea named by the word ; second^ the use which is made of the 
word in the construction of the sentence. This is important ; because, 
the office of a word is the basis of its grammatical classification ; and, 
the same word may be used to'fih different offices in a sentence. 

1. The watchman watches his watch. 

2. Mr. Wells' well is well filled with well-water. 

3. I saw the saw in the saw-mill. 

4. Paint preserves edifices. 

5. Painters paint houses with paint. 

6. Mr. Waters waters the plants with a cupful of water. 

'^, The dock-builders dock the timber according to the length 
of the dock. 

8. This inn is kept by Mr. Innis. 

9. Post no bills on this post. 

10. In the Spring, water springs from the springs. 

11. The bubbles bubble up from the mud. 

12. Butter the bread with fresh butter. 

13. Arm yourselves with the choicest of arms. 
. 14. He stores his store of goods in the stores. 

15. The dogs bay at the bay horses in the big bay. 

16. They is a personator. 

17. Ducks duck down into the duck-weed. 

18. Mr. Black's black coat blacks his white waistcoat very 



CLAUSES. 115 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

107. A Compound Sentence is the expression or name of a 
Cmipound thought. 

Examples. 

1. "We have changes of seasons; because, while the earth 
moves around the sun, her axis is inclined to the plane of the 
sun's equator. 

General Analysis. We have changes, etc., is a compound sentence ; 
because, it expresses or names a compound thought. 

1®8. The elements of Compound Sentences are 
Clauses^ Connectors^ and Belative Adjuncts. 



Clauses. 

Lit. Def. The word, clause,^ means something limited, fenced, enr 
closed. 

109. A Clause ts a sentence used as an element in the con- 
struction of a Compound Sentence. 

Note I. Clauses are sometimes called the Sentential Elements or 
the Memlers of Compound Sentences. 

110. Clauses are classified in three ws^js '^ first, ac- 
cording to their rank or degree; second, according to 
tlieir forms ; third., according to their uses or offices. 

Clauses, according to their Rank or Degree. 

111. According to their ranh or degree, Clauses are 
divided into Principal, Co-ordinate, and Subordinate 
Clauses. 

^ Clause. 6, state of ; « ■= (Z, that wMch ; clau^ has been closed. 



116 THE RHETOKIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Principal Clauses. 

lis. The Peincipal Clause is the chief or leading clause 
of a compound sentence. 

Examples. 

1 . The soldier was wounded^ while he was returning to the 
camp. 

The soldier vjos wounded is the principal clause of the compound 
sentence, the soldier was wounded, while returning to the camp. 

2. The gr 00771 compelled the horse to stand still. 

Co-ordinate Clauses. 

113. Co-ordinate Clauses are clauses expressing co-ordinate 

thoughts or thoughts of the same degree. 

1st Clause. 2d Clause. 3d Clause. 

1. Men live, and men die; but God lives forever. 

2. You may ride the horse to town, or you may go by the 
cars. 

Subordinate Clauses. 

114:. Subordinate Clauses express thoughts^ which are sub- 
ordinate to other thoughts. 

1. I will lend you the book if I can find it. 

lean find it is a subordinate clause ; because, it expresses a thought, 
which is subordinate to the action, will lend, and thus, becomes sub- 
ordinate to the thought, I will lend you the look. 

2. Does such a scholar as he is, read books ? 

He is is a subordinate clause; because, it expresses a thought, sub- 
ordinate to the secondary idea, such, and hence, is subordinate to the 
thought, does such a man read books. 

3. The success was as great as he expected. 

He expected is a subordinate clause; because, it expresses a thought, 
subordinate to the secondary idea, as, and thus, subordinate to the 
thought, the success was as great. 

4. He was so successful that he was able to retire fiiwii 
business. 



GLAUSES, 117 

5. He was so SQ'^cessful as to he alle to retire from lusiness. 

6. A ship, which never lifts her anchors^ needs no sail. 

Which never lifts her anchors^ is a subordinate clause ; because, it 
names a thought subordinate to the actor, ship, and thus, is subordinate 
■to the thought, a ship needs no sails. 

7. The wind bloweth where it listeth^ and thou hearest the 
sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it com.eth nor whither 
it goeth. 

115. According %oform^ a clause is either >SVm/>?e, or 

{Jonnected. 

ClauseSj Simple in Form. 

1 1 0. A Clause is Simple in form^ when it may he used 
^ilone, or as a simple sentence, 

1. Men live^ and men die^ but God lives forever. 

The clause, men Uve^ is simple in form; because, in its present form, 
■it may be used as a simple sentence. 

For the same reason, the clauses, men die^ God lives forever, are also 
jsimple in form. 

2. The officer knew them to be the men. 

The clause, the officer knew , is simple in form ; because, etc. 

3. They were known to be the men hy the officer. 

The clause, were known hy the officer y is simple m form ; be- 
cause, etc. 

Note I. The student has already learned in Simple Sentences, that 
a part of a sentence may be expressed, and that a part of it may be 
imderstood, without destroying the sentence. 

4. I will lend you the hook^ if / can find it. 
These clauses are simple in form ; because, etc. 

Clauses^ Connected in Form, 

IIT. A Clause is Connected hy its form ^ when it cannot he 
used as a simple sentence ; or^ when its form requires thai it he 
kiken v)ith another clause. 



118 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

1 1 8. A Clause is connected hy its form in two ways ; 
first, when a relator is used to show the relation of the pred- 
icate to its subject; second, when the clause contains a ret- 
ative adjunct. 

1. You desired John to go. 

In the clause, John to go, the relation of the predicate, go, to its own 
subject, John, is shown by the relator, to ; hence, the clause, John to go, 
is joined to the clause, you desired, by its form ; because, the clause, 
John to go, cannot be used as a simple sentence. 

Note I. In the English language, to is the only word that can be 
used to show the relation of a predicate to its own subject. This use 
of a relator belongs almost exclusively to the English language, and is 
the third way in which relators can be used in an English sentence. 
(See Grammar, Prepositions.) 

This third use of relators may be understood by observing the fol- 
lowing examples ; — 

2. We called the horses. 

In which horses is a first object word. 

3. We called the old horses. 

In which, the old horses may be taken as a first object phrase. 

4. We called the horses to come to us. 

In which, the horses to come to us is a first object clause or a senten- 
tial first object. In each of these examples, horses appears to be the 
first object of the afiirmer, called; but, to prevent this mistake on the 
part of the narratee, the narrator inserts the relator, to, to show that 
ihe subject, horses, together with its predicate, to come, must be taken 
together as the first object clause or sentential first object of the pred- 
icate, called. 

Note II. In very familiar expressions, the relator, to, is understood. 

0. Jane saw the horses run. 

Jane saw the horses to run. 

6. The girls heard the birds [to] sing. 

7. Oh, come ! Let us [to] sing a new song. 

11®. According to their uses or offices in Sentences^ 
Clauses are clividecl into ; Subject^ First Object^ Second 
Object^ and Adjunct Clauses. 



CLAUSES. 119 

Note 1. These are sometimes called Sentential Subjects, iJeniential 
Ohiepta Sentential Adjuncts. 

Subject Clauses. 

130. A Subject Clause is a clause used as a hasis or 
foundation in the construction of a Compound Sentence. 

1. " Do good to your enemies''^ is a Divine precept. 

Special Analysis. '•'' Do good to your enemies ^^ names a thought, 
taken as the first primary ; rhetorically, it is the subject clause of a 
compound sentence. It is a subject clause or a sentential subject of a 
compound sentence actively constructed • because, it expresses a thought, 
taken as an actor, and is used, etc. 

2. ^^ Art thou my friend^^ was whispered in my ear by 
some person behind me. 

^^ Art thou my friend)'' is a subject clause or a sentential subject^ of a 
compound sentence, passively constructed. 

3. Saturn was asked to come into Italy by somebody. 

Saturn to come into Italy is a subject clause or a sentential subject of 
a compound sentence, passively constructed. 

4. The gentlemen were urged to tahe dinner by the lady. 

Note II. When a Subject Clause is used in a sentence passively con- 
structed, the subject of the Clause is taken as the subject of the sentence, 
and is placed before the affirmer of the sentence, and the remainder of 
the Subject Clause is placed after the af&rmer. An exception to this 
is caused by the use of quotations. 

The true forms of the last two examples, when passively constructed, 
are ; — 

Saturn to come into Italy was asked by somebody. 

The gentlemen to stay to dinner was urged by the lady. 

5. He is said to have come into Italy. 
Him to have come into Italy is said. 

First Object Clauses. 

121. A First Object Clause is a clause used as a first 

object in the construction of a compound sentence. 

1. The Creator did not say ^' Dust thou art'' to the human 
soul. 



120 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Dust thou art is a first object clause or a sentential first oOjeci ; ub- 
cause, it expresses a thought, taken as a receiver m a compound sen- 
tence, actively constructed. 

2. '^ Art thou my friendT'' said some person. 

" Art thou my friend f is a first object clause ; because, etc. 

3. Somebody asked Saturn to come into Italy, 

4. The lady urged the gentlemen to take dinner 

5. Let your songs resound. 

6. He bade them depart in peace. 

Second Ohject Clauses. 
1S2. A Second Object Clause is a clause^ used as a sec- 
ond ohject in the construction of a compound sentence, 

1. I sent for him to come to me. 

Apparently, liim to come to me is a second object clause of the affirmer, 
sent, to which its relation is shown by for ; but, in reahty, it may be 
the result of a contraction, such as would take place in the following 
example, if the words, for I wisli Mm, were omitted. 

2. I sent for him \_for I wish him] to come to me. 

3. Thej sent supplies to the troops lesieging the city. 
They sent supplies to the troops \wlio were] besieging the city. 

4. I heard of his going to town. 

5. The general erred in employing an inexperienced guide. 

6. We have succeeded in finding the requisite papers. 

7. He thought of his parents being in trouble. 

8. He talked of going to town. 

9. He dreamed of climbing the Alps. 

Adjunct Clauses. 

133. An Adjunct Clause is a clause, used as an adjunct 
of a word belonging to another clause. 

1. The boy, who was taken sick yesterday, is better this morn- 
ing. 

Special Analysis. Logically, ivho was taken sick yesterday is a 
thought used as an idea subordinate to the actor or first primary, boy ; 
rhetorically, it is an adjunct clause or a sentential adjunct of the 
subject, bvy^ to which its relation is shown by the relative adjunct, who. 



CLAUSES. 121 

Note I. An Adjunct Clause may be joined to its principal word by 
the relator, of; or, by a relative adjunct. 

2. I see no chance of Frank's being here to-day. 

Frank''s being here to-day is an adjunct clause, whose relation to its 
principal, chance, is shown by the relator, of. 

3. There is no means of crossing the river at this point. 

4. A chance of escaping into our own lines occurred just 
then. 

5. I saw him ivhile he was standing on the Iridge. 

While he was standing on the bridge, is an adjunct clause of the pred- 
icate, saw, to which its relation is shown by the relative adjunct, while. 

6. I have the pen which you gave me. 

7. The trout are plenty in a pond that lies heyooid the 
mountain. 

8. I received the barrel of apples which you sent to me. 



Note. If the student be not already familiar with the practice, he 
should now write Analyses of the examples, given under Clauses. This 
practice is valuable ; first, for increasing the student's readiness and 
skill in the constructing of sentences ; and, also, in their Analyses ; 
second, as a means of mental discipline ; than which, no other exercise 
more valuable, can be found. 

In writing these Analyses, plus in parenthesis, ( + ), signifies that the 
clause is joined by a relative adjunct ; while the asterisk or star., [*] 
shows that a clause is joined to its principal word by a relator. ' Ap- 
positional words may be signified by a repetition of the character which 
represents one of them; or, both may be represented by the same 
character. Thus; — 

1. The note which you sent came to me yesterday. 

At first, we have what appears to be the formula of a simple sen- 
tence, F S; in which, F = the note which you sent, and S r= came to we 
yesterday. But, the first part consists of the subject, note ; of the word 
adjunct, the, related to the subject, note, hj its position, and of the 
clause adjunct, which you sent, related or joined to the subject, note, by 
the relative adjunct, which; hence, we have; — 

F S == F (4)^TF8 ^' ^^^^ ^^» ^ ^ ^^ ^^^' M^^ ^^^"^^ ^^^' 
F, you; S, sent 



122 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Connectors. 

Lit. Def. The word, connector ^'^ means the office of that which ties 

together. 

I S4. A Connector ts a word, naming an idea of connec- 
tion, and used to join two clauses. 

Examples. 

1. He shook the fragment of his blade and he shouted, 

^'Victory I" 

General Analysis. 12 3 + 123. 

Special Analysis. And^ logically, is an idea of connection between 
two thoughts ; rhetorically, and is used as the connector of the two 
clauses, he shook the fragment of his blade, he shouted, ^^ Victory P'' And 
is a connector, because it names an idea of connection between two 
thoughts, and joins the clauses expressing those thoughts. 

2. The waves ebb and flow, hut the solid rocks remain un- 
changed for ages. 

General Analysis. FS + fS + FS. 

Special Analysis. Logically, hut is an idea of connection between 
two thoughts ; rhetorically, lut is used as the connector of the two 
clauses expressing the two thoughts, the waves eHb and flow, the solid 
rocks remain unchanged for ages. 

Note I. Many suppose that a Connector can be used to join words 
as well as sentences. This supposition has arisen from the occurrence 
of contractions in Compound Sentences, in which contractions, the 
Connectors and a word from each clause are all that remain. Thus ; — 

3. James and John go to school; that is, James goes to 
school and John goes to school. 

4. I saw a man and a boy. I saw a man and I saw a boy. 

5. Virtue, Diligence, and Prudence produce their own re- 
.ward; that is, Virtue produces its own reward, and Diligence 

produces its own reward, and Prudence produces its own re- 
ward. 

6. Two and two are four; that is, two added to two becomes 

'"* Connector, tor, office of that which ; neo=nex, ties, binds ; C(?w, together. 



CONKECTORS. 123 

four, or two added to two are four. The original expression 
may have been, ''it takes a two and a two to make a four ;'^ 
or, ^Hwo and two put together make foibrT 

7. The harvest is abundant, therefore will we rejoice and be 
glad. 

8. The flowers will blossom until they are nipped by the 
frost. 

13o. Connectors, according io\he ideas of connection 
wliicli ttey name, are divided into Co-ordinate^ and Sub- 
ordinate Connectors. 

1S6. A Co-ordinate Connector is the name of a co-ordi- 
nate idea of connection^ and used to join co-ordinate clauses. 

Note I. Co-ordinate Oonnectors are sometimes called Extending 
Oonnectors, because they extend or carry forward the narration. 

1. We will rejoice and be glad, hecause the harvest is abund- 
ant. 

General Analysis, FS + fS + FS. 

Special Analysis, Logically, hecause is a co-ordinate idea of connec- 
tion ; rhetorically, because is a co-ordinate connector ; because, it is used 
to join the two clauses, we will rejoice and be glad, the harvest is abund- 
ant. In like manner, analyze the co-ordinate connecior, and,, 

2. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he be 
weary of thee and so hate thee. 

3. He did as much as he could do, hut he did not do as 
much as he wished to do. 

197. A SuBOEDiNATE Connector is the name of a suhordi- 
nate idea of connection, and is used to Join a subordinate clause 
'either to the affirmer, or to an adjunct word of another clause. 

Note II. Subordinate Connectors are sometimes called Limiting 
Oonnectors, because the subordinate element is adjunctiv b to some word 
in the principal element. 

4. The grain will grow if the soil be good. 

Special Analysis. ■ If, logically, is a subordinate idea of connection ; 
rhetorically, if is used as a subordinate connector ; because, it joins the 
subordinate clause, the soil be good, to the affirmer, will grow. 



124 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

5. The son is as old as the father was twenty years ago. 

In ex.. 5, as connects the subordinate clause, the father was twenty 
years ago^ to as^ an adjunct of the adjunct old. 

6. Either keep still, or go out. 

In ex., 6, or unites the sentence, go out, to either, an adjunct of keepa 

7. Such friends, as these friends have shown themselves to 

be, are friends indeed. 

In ex., 7, as unites the clause, these friends have shoivn themselves to 
he, to such, an adjunct word of friends. 

i^OTE III. The student should observe that, a Co-ordinate Connector 
joins two clauses expressing thoughts of the san:ie degree, directly ; 
and that, a Subordinate Connector joins a clause expressing a subor- 
dinate thought directly to the affirmer or to an adjunct of a sentence 
expressing the principal thought, and thus joins the two clauses, in* 
directly. 

1S8. Subordinate Coniiectors are sometimes used 
Simply^ and sometimes Cor relatively. 

l^H. A Subordinate Connector is used Simply, when it is 
used to join its clause to the predicate of another clause. 

8. Yon will fail in your recitations, y^you study your lessons 

carelessly. 

Special Analysis, i/^ is a Subordinate Connector used simply, to 
show the connection of the subordinate, you study your lessons carelessly^ 
to the predicate, icill fail. 

9. Occupy till I come. Stay here until I return. 

10. Mary will be here before Martha is ready to receive 
her. 

11. Before I took a seat, I placed a seat before the man. 

12. He sought for his friends /or he desired to see them. 

13. I heard that he had left the place. 

Lit. Def. The word, cor relatively,^ means like that luhich carries 
lack and forth. 

130. A Subordinate Connector is used Coreelatively, 
when it is tcsed to join its clause to an adjunct, vjhich adjunct, m 
}arn, relates to the connector. 

^ CoEBELATiVELY, Hvcly^ ; la, carries ; re, back ; cor == con, forth, together. 



CONNECTOKS. 125 

14. Such a man, as he was, is seldom found. 

As joins the subordinate clause, he was, to the adjunct, such ; while, 
the adjunct, such^ shows that its clause, such a man is seldom found, is 
to be taken with the clause preceded by as. So that the Connector, as, 
relates to the adjunct, such, and the adjunct, such, relates to the con- 
nector, as. Hence, the two are used correlatively. 

15. No man is so fortunate as always to be successful. 

16. He did as much as he could do, but he did not do as 
much as he wished to do. 

17. I can either stay, or I can go. You can neither stay, 
nor go. 

18. I can either eat, or I can drink. You can neither eat 
nor drink ; ' because, you have neither food nor water. 

Note IY. The Connector is frequently understood. 

19. John, James, Henry, and Joseph, are good boys. 
John, and James, and Henry, and Joseph, are good boys, 
John is a good boy, and James is a good boy, etc. 

Note Y. Sometimes the contraction of a sentence gives a Subor- 
dinate Connector, used Correlatively, the appearance of being a Relative 
Adjunct. 

20. I have as much. money as I need. I have as much 
money, as the money, which money I need, is. 

F S T, in which, ¥ — I; S = have ; T = as much money as I need. 

T 

But F S T = F S T + fs( + )tFS- 

Rhetorical Translation. F = subject personated by /; S = have, 
pred. of subj., personated by /; T = as much money as I need; or, as 
much money, as the money, which I need, is ; T =: as much money; of 
which, money is a 1st obj. of have; much, adj, of m.oney ; as, adj. of 
much; -{- =: as, connector, correlative with as; f = ononey, the subj., 
understood, and the, adj. of money ; s = is, understood, aff. of ononey ; 
( + ) shows that the clause is joined by a relative adj.; t = money, un- 
derstood, and which, relative adj.; F = subj., personated by/; 8 = 
need aff". of subj., personated by /. 



126 THE KHETOKIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Relative AdJTincts. 

131 A Relative Adjunct is an adjunct which shows thai 
its j^'i^in/'dpal or subsequent word may he found^ as its antecedent^ 
in another clause^ and thus makes its own clause subordinate to 
that, in which the antecedent is found. 

1. The house, which [house] stands near the river, belongs 
to me. 

Wliich is an adjunct word of house^ and signifies that its principal 
word, liouse^ may be found in another clause, as its antecedent ; thus, 
the relative adjunct, which, joins the clause, which house stands near the 
river, to house, the subject of the clause, the house belongs to me. 

2. The rain fell in torrents while we were coming to the 
boat. 

The rain fell in torrents during the time, in which time, we were 
coming to the boat. 

Tlie relative adjunct, while, is equivalent to the second objects, in 
which time, during which time, but may be taken as the adjunct of the 
predicate, were coming, and having for its antecedent, the affirmer, fell; 
thus, joining the clause, lohile we were coming to the boat, as a subor- 
dinate, to its principal, the rain fell in torrents. 

3. I have found the knife, which [knife] you lost. 

Note I. The subsequent term of a Relative Adjunct may be undei- 
stood. 

4. The box was sent to the house in which jovl boarded. 

Note II. Sometimes, by contraction, both the adjunct word and its 
principal are omitted. 

5. The boy left the pail standing by the well. 

The boy left the pail, which pail was standing by the well. 

Classification of Compound Sentences, 

13S. Compound Sentences are classified in two 
ways ; first^ according to their degrees ; second^ according 
to the modes of joining their clauses. 



RELATIVE ADJUNCTS. 127 

First Classification of Compound Sentences. 

133. A Compound Sentence takes its degree from 
the degree of the compound thought which it expresses. 
Hence, we have Compound Sentences of the First De- 
gree or Primary^ of the Second Degree or Secondary^ of 
the Third Degree or Tertiary^ etc. (See Chap. I., 45.) 

Examples. 

1. Thinking is the unification of our knowledge, while 
talldng is the expression of our knowledge. 

2. Men dig for gold and hunt for silver, and rejoice when 
they find them. 

3. If men sought less for riches, they might find more hap- 
piness. 

4. The mother permitted the child to follow her into the 
sti^eet. 

Each of these examples is a Compound Sentence of the first degree 
or a 'primary Compound ; because, it expresses a compound thought of 
the first degree or a primary compound thought. 

5. We went into the garden, and from that we went into 
the park ; because, we were seeking our friends whom we ex- 
pected to meet there. 

6. You stood still, while he advanced ; for, neither of you 
knew w^hat ought to be done. 

7. The man will go to town and return again to-day, if he 
can get ready in season. 

8. This boy failed in his last examination, but since then 
he has studied diligently, and now he has succeeded. 

9. Leave thy fatherless children, I wdll preserve them 
alive ; and let thy widows trust in me. 

Each of these examples is a Compound Sentence of the second de- 
gree or a secondary Compound ; because, it expresses, etc. 

10. There are some persons who are always seeking wealth, 
vet they never gain it ; and there are others who seek very 
jttle for wealth, and yet they are wealthy. 



128 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Example, 10, is a Compound Sentence of the third degree or a ter- 
nary Compound; because, it expresses, etc. 

Second Classification of Com^^ound Sentences. 

134. Compound Sentences, according to the mode of 
joining their clauses, are divided into Connected^ and Mixed 
or Complex Compound Sentences. 

Note I. The word, comioound^ may be omitted ; because, a sentence 
must be a Compound Sentence before it can be either a Connected, or 
a Mixed or Complex Sentence. 

135. A Connected Sentence is one whose clauses are 
joined hy a connector either expressed or understood. When 
the connector is a co-ordinate^ the thought is a connected com- 
pound ; hutj when the connector is a subordinate^ the thought is 
a complex or mixed compound thought 

Connected Sentences expressing Connected Thoughts. 

1. The book was carefully perused, and then it was sent 

home. 

Analysis. Ehetorical, the hook was, etc., is a connected sentence, 
whose clauses are joined by the co-ordinate connector, a'/id ; hence, it is 
a connected sentence, expressing a connected thought. 

2. In the morning sow thy seed, and in the evening with- 
hold not thy hand. 

Connected Sentences expressing Complex Thoughts. 

3. He never lends an umbrella, although he has a dozen. 

Analysis. He never lends, etc., is a connected sentence, whose clauses 
are joined by the subordinate connector, although ; hence, it is a con- 
nected sentence, expressing a connected thought. 

4. We knew that they were the men. 

This example is a connected sentence, having the two clauses, we 
knew, they were the men, joined by the subordinate connector, that. 

Complex or Mixed Sentences. 
13G. A Complex or Mixed Sentence is one having^ as a7i 
ele'inent, a suhject^ an object^ or an adjunct clause, joined by its 



COMPLEX OR MIXED SENTENCES. 129 

form^ oy a relative adjunct^ or hy a relator. A Complex or 
Mixed Sentence always expresses a complex or mixed thought. 

5. " Tritst ye in me " has cheered many a heart. 

Trust ye in ??ze, has^ etc., is a complex or mixed sentence ; because, it 
has this subject clause, trust ye in me, as one of its immediate elements. 

6. He was desired to sing the song by them. 

Real form^ passively expressed. Him to sing the song was desired by 
them. 

7. They desired him to sing the song. 

They desired^ etc., is a complex sentence ; because, it has the first 
object clause. Mm to sing the song. 

8. Many a drooping heart has been cheered by '' trust ye 
in me." 

Ex., 8, is a mixed sentence ; because, it has the second object clause, 
trust ye in me. 

9. The man, who hrings the machine to you^ will wait while 
you are trying it. 

This example is a complex sentence. It has two adjunct clauses 
joined to their antecedents by the relative adjuncts, who^ luhile. 

10. We had no notice of his leaving so soon. 

11. Let not him, that putteth on his armor, boast himself as 
he that putteth off. 

12. How few dare to be just and speak the truth under all 
circumstances ! 

1.3. Let him, that is without blame, cast the first stone. 
14. Allow me to anticipate your wants by handing you 
these things. 

Formula, f S T = f S ? 



E ? T. 

S*fST 



Translation, f ; S = allow [to me] ; T — me to anticipate your 

wa7its hy handing you these things; but, T := E r. ^ . r, rr^ T; tliat is, F 

O I to 1 

i= me; S = to anticipate by handing you these things ; T = your wants, 

6* 



130 THE RHETORIC OF LAKGUAG-E. 

1 3T. Second Classification of Sentences. Sentences, 

according to their thoughts and forms^ are divided into 
three kinds ; — 

First Sentences Independent in thought and in form. 

Second. Sentences Dependent in thought and Indepen- 
dent in form. 

Third, Sentences Dependent in thought and in form. 

Sentences, Indeioendent in Thought and in Form, 
138. A Sentence^ Independent in thought and in form^ 
is the expression of an indejj^endent thought^ in a sentence having 
an indejpenclent form or the form of a sim^jle sentence, 

XoTE I. Tills definition includes ; first, all simple sentences ; second^ 
all compound sentences taken entire ; tliird^ all principal clauses of com- 
pound sentences ; fourth^ all clauses joined by co-ordinate connectors. 

Examples. 

1. The explorers of this region called the Delaware, the 
South Eiver. 

2. The Hudson River was called the North River by the 
explorers of this region. 

Each of these examples is independent both in thought and in form; 
because, it expresses an independent thought, and has an independent 
form. 

3. The North River was called the JSudson in honor of its 
discoverer, and the South River was called the Delaioare, 
in honor of Lord De La War, one of the original propriertors 
of that region. 

Example, 3, taken entire, is independent in thought and in form; be- 
cause, a thought, or a sentence, used alone, can have no dependence on 
another. Each of its clauses is independerd in thought and in form; 
because, it expresses an independent thought, and may be used as a 
simple- sentence, 

4. The rulers compelled the people to do military dutj. 

Example, 4, as a whole, is independent both in thought and in form. 
Its principal clause, the rulers compelled^ is independent in thought and in 
foT'ni^ clzo. 



FOKMS, INDEPENDENT, DEPENDENT. 131 

5. The people were compelled to do military duty by their 
rulers. 

6. A house once stood here^ where we are now standmg. 

Sentences^ Dependent in Thought and Independent in Form. 

139. A Sentence^ Dependent in thought and Independ- 
ent in FORMj is the expression of a dependent thought in a clause 
having an independent form or the form of a simple sentence. 

Examples. 

1. Napoleon ordered that a part of the soldiers should act as 
pioneers. 

2. That a part of the soldiers should act as pioneers was 
ordered by Napoleon. 

A part of the soldiers should act as pioneers is a clause, dependent in 
its thought and independent in its form ; because, et<;. 

3. Some suppose that Paradise, the Garden of Eden^ was 
situated near the Euphrates, a river of Asia. 

4. That Paradise, the Garden of Eden, loas situated near the 
Euphrates, a river of Asia, is supposed b}^ some. 

5. I thought that she walked up this hill. 

6. I called at the house in which you reside. 

Sentences, Dependent in Thought and in Form. 

14:©. A Sentence, Dependent in thought and in form, ^5 
the expression of a dependent thought, in a clause having a de- 
pendent form or having a form which cannot he used as a sim- 
ple sentence. 

1. I saw the horses run, 

I saw the horses to run. 

Tlie horses [to] run is a clsfuse, dependent in its thought and in its form ; 
because, it is the expression of a dependent thought, in a sentence hav- 
ing a dependent form or a form which cannot be used as a simple sen- 
tence. 

2. The horses were seen to run by me. 

True passive construction. The horses to run was seen by me. 



132 THE RHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

141. Third Classification of Sentences. Sentences, 
according to the narrator^ s use of them, are divided into 
Interrogative or Questions^ Responsive or Answers^ His- 
toric or Declarative^ Imperative^ Conditional^ and Exclam- 
ative. 

Interrogative Sentences or Questions. 

Lit. Def. The word, interrogative^'^ means the office of that which 
questions. 

The word, question^^ means that which ashs or seeks. 

142. An Intereogatiye Sentence or Question is a sen- 
tence^ used when the narrator wishes information from the nar- 
ratee^ or loishes to astonish or confound the narratee. 

1. Simple Form. Come ye in peace? 

2. Emphatic, Do ye come in peace ? 

3. Periphrastic. Are ye coming in peace? 

Note L An Interrogative Sentence or Question is called a Que^^y. 
It might, for convenience, be called a Quesitaiive Sentence, because it 
questions or seeks. 

4. Who is here? Which is here? What is here? 

143. Interrogative Sentences or Questions are divided 
into two kinds ; Direct, and Indirect. 

Direct Questions. 
Lit. Def. The word, direct,^ means straight through or across. 

14^. A Direct Interrog active Sentence or Question is used, 
when the narrator luishes the narratee to reply concerning the 
action mentioned in the question. 

This is shown, if the predicate be simple, by placing it before the 
subject ; if the predicate be a phrase, by placing an auxiliary before 
the subject. 

5. Laughest thou, Lochiel? Dost thou laugh, Lochiel? 
Art thou laughing, Lochiel? 

1 IxTEREOGATiYE. ati've, ; rog, questions, asks; inter, between, back and 

forth. 

2 Question, tioji, ; ques, asks, seeks. See query. 

3 DiEECT. t, ; rec, straight, right; di =dia, through, across; in, not. 



EESPONSIYES OE ANSWEES. 133 

Indirect Questions, 

14:3. An Indirect Interrogative Sentence or Question is 
used to sJioio that the narrator seeks a reply in regard to the 
actor, receiver^ or to some suhordinate idea^ expressed in the 
question. 

This is shown by placing, at the beginning of the sentence, an ad- 
junctive belonging to the name of that idea. 

6. Who says this ? Which man did this ? What is this? 
What did you do ? 

7. How was it ? When was it ? Where was it ? Why was 
it ? Whence comest thou ? Whither goest thou ? 

Responsive Sentences or Answers. 

Lit. Def. The word, responsive^'^ means like that which gives lack. 
The word, answer ^^ means talk lack. 

14:6. A Eesponsive Sentence or Answer is used ly the 
narratee^ in replying to the question of the narrator. 

Eesponsive sentences are formed according to the general form. 

147. Eesponsiyes or Answers are divided into two 
kinds ; Affirmative and Negative, 

Affirmative Answers. 

14:8. An Affirmative Answer is one, in which the narrafee 
re- asserts or affirms the narrator^ s question. 

1. Heardest thou this ? I heard this. 

2. Didst thou hear this ? I did hear this. 

3. Wert thou hearing this ? I was hearing this. 

4. Was this heard by thee ? This was heard ly me, 

5. Who did it? John did it. 

6. Which did it ? / did it. 



1 Responsive, swe^ ; spon, puts, stands ; re^ . See respond^ despond^ 

correspondent. 

2 AjsrswEs. &wer^ talk, tell; an=ana, back, again. See sware. 



184 THE EHETORIC OF LA^^GUAGE. 

v. What did it ? Tlie wind did it 

8. When was it done ? It was done to-day. 

Negative Answers. 
Lit. Def. The word, negative,'^ means thai which denies or refuses. 

149. A ISTegatiye Answer is one, which denies the existence^ 
occurrence, etc., of the actor, action, etc., expressed in the question. 

9. Sittest thou ? I sit not. 

10. Dost thou sit? I do not sit. 

11. Art thou sitting ? I am not sitting. 

12. Who did it? Kolody did 'it. 

13. Which boy did it? Neither hoy did it. 

14. What did it? Nothing did it. 

15. When was it done ? It vjas 7iot done, 

jSTote I. Responsive Sentences or Answers are, generally, very much 
contracted. Thus ; — 

First The Affirmative Answer to a direct question is constructed by 
restating the subject and the predicate which preceded it ; or, by the 
word, Yes. 

15. Fled they? They fled ; or, Yes. 

16. Did they flee? They did; Yes. 

17. Were they fleeing? They were; Yes. 

Second. The Negative Answer to a direct question is formed by 
adding not to the Affirmative Answer ; or, by the word. No. 

18. Ate he the food? He ate not ; or, No. 

19. Did he eat the food? He did not ; No. 

20. Was he eating the food? He was not ; No. 

21. Was the food eaten by him ? The food was not ; or. 
It luas not ; No. 

Note II. Many have a strange habit of putting the negative adjunct, 
»^o^, in questions. Thus; — 

Are you not going ? ; for, Are you going ? 
Will you not come to-night ? 

- Negative, ative, ; g= ag =ac, acts, does ; ne — non, not 



HISTORIC SENTENCES. 135 

Tlie only safe answer to these questions is made by changing the 
question to its responsive forms, retaining, or omitting the not^ according 
to the intention of the narratee. Thus ; — 

22. Are you not going? I am not going ; I am going 

23. Will you not come to-night ? I will come to-night; I 
will not come to-night. 

The answers, yes, no, are frequently given to these negative ques- 
tions. For instance, if the narratee intend to go, he says " yes ;^^ if he 
does not intend to go, he says " 720." Now, notice the absurdity ; Do 
you not intend to go ? Yes ; that is, Yes, I do not intend to go ; when 
he reaUy means, / do intend to go. 

Third. An Affirmative Answer to an indirect question is made by 
stating the principal word, to which the adjunct placed at the beginning 
of the question, refers. 

24. Who did it? You. 

25. Which did it? The hoy. 

26. What did it? The wind. 

27. When was it done ? Yesterday. 

28. How was it done ? Well. 

29. Why was it done ? For fun, 

30. Whence came it. From the city. 

Fourth. A Negative Answer to an indirect question is made by at- 
taching the negative adjunct, no, to the principal word, to which the 
adjunct beginning the question, refers. 

31. Who did it? No one. 

32. Which did it ? Neither. 

33. What did it? Nothing. 

34. When was it done ? Never. 

35. How was it done ? It was not done. 1 

36. Why was it done ? It was not done. 

37. Whence came it? It did not come. 

Historic or Declarative Sentences. 

Lit. Def. The word, historic,^ means belonging to that which is fixed, 
surt, fast. 

The word, declarative^'^ means like that which speaks out. 

1 Historic, oric^ belonging to the office of ; ^, that which ; his^ stands, keeps. 
See history. 

^ Declaeative. {a)ti've^ ; clar = clam, speaks, shouts ; de, out, concerning. 



136 THE KHETORIC OF LAKGUAGE. 

mo. A Historic or Declarative Sentence is used ly the 

narrator in giving an account or history of a matter^ or a state- 
ment of an occurrence^ and indicates that the narrator is in his 
ordinary moods or feelings, 

1. I asked him to go with me, and he went. 

2. Thus it speaks ; — 

"The day I commemorate is the rod with which the hand 
of the Lord has opened the well of Liberty. Its waters will 
flow ; every new drop of martyr blood will increase the tide." 

Imperative Sentences, 

lol. An Imperative Sentence is used hy the narrator in \ 
entreating^ ordering^ giving permission^ apologizing^ etc., and in- 
dicates that the narrator has more than his ordinary feelings or 
moods in regard to it. 

Imperative sentences are formed by placing the subject after the 
whole of the predicate. 

L Entreating. Give us this day our daily bread. 

2. Permitting. Go thou in peace. 

3. Apologizing. Excuse me, please. 

4. Commanding. Attention ! Shoulder Arms I Forward, 
march ! 

Conditional Sentences. 

Lit. Def. The word, conditional^^ means that which has been put 
with another. 

15S. A Conditional Sentence is used to express a thought 
subordinate to an idea in another thought 

1. The trip will be pleasant, if the wind do not blow. 

2. The ship, heing leaky, was abandoned by the crew. 

3. The vessel struck a rock, lying in the channel of the river, 

4. The Avind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the 
sound thereof; but, thou canst not tell lohence it comcth^ nor 
vjhither it goeth. 

1 Conditional, itional, ; c?, put, placed ; co?i, togeth??. 



EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES. 137 

JEhclamative Sentences. 

1 5S. An ExcLAMATiTE Sentence is a sentence expressing a 
thought^ hy whose narration^ the passions or emotions of the nar- 
rator are excited, 

1. Banished from Kome I What's banished, but set free 
From daily contact of the things I loathe ? 

•' Tried and convicted traitor !" "Who says this ? 
Who'll prove it, at his peril, on my head? 
Banished ! I thank you for it. It breaks my chain I 
I held some slack allegiance till this hour, 
But now my sword's my own. Smile on, my lords ! 

2. Warning. " Lochiel ! Lochiel ! Beware of the day." 

3. Rally. -'To arms! To arms ! They come 1 The Greek I 
The Greek!" 

That is, fly to your arms ! The G-reek comes. Contracted. 

4. Apostrophe. Hail ! Holy light ! 

5. Affected Surprise, Oh! Ah I Yes! I do remember now, 
M-i-s-t-e-r Williams ! 

6. Grief turning to Anguish. 

'' And I behold !— God ! God ! 
His life-blood oozing from the sod !" 

7. Coaxing. Fatty. Poor William ! grandmother, do 
let me go ! 

8. Affected Indifference. Mrs. Matthews. Humph! 
Patty. My cousin Mary will be so disappointed. 
Mrs. Matthews. Humph ! 

9. Cheering, Three cheers for ourselves ! Hurrah ! Hur- 
rah ! Hurrah ! Hip ! Hip ! Hip ! Hurrah ! 

10. Oh, that one would hear me ! Behold my desire is, 
that the Almighty would answer me, and that mine adversary 
had written a book. Surely, I would take it upon my shoulder, 
and bind it as a crown to me. I would declare unto him the 
number of my steps ; as a prince would I go near unto him. 



188 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Ellipsis or Contraction of Sentences. 

1 54. Tliird^ the Ellipsis or Contraction of Sentences. 



155. Definitions. < 



The word, ellipsis,^ means something 
left out or omitted. 

The word, contraction,^ means hr ought 

together. 

The Ellipsis or Contraction of 
Sentences includes that ]}art of the science^ which shows hovj a part 
may he used instead of the lohole sentence^ in expressing or naming 
a thought. 

Note I. The Uncontracted sentence, expressing its thought in full, 
seem to have been compared to the circumference of a circle, including 
a whole or perfect circular area ; while, the Elliptical or Contracted sen- 
tence, expressing a part of the thought only, seems to have been com- 
pared to the circumference of an ellipse, including a part of a circular 
area. This view is farther confirmed by the fact, that the point, placed 
at the end of an uncontracted sentence, is called the Feriod, a word 
which, literally, signifies a circumference or circular road. (See Arith., 
Mensuration, Circle^ Ellipsis.) 

156. General Law. The part of an Elliptical or Con- 
tracted sentence lohich is expressed^ must suggest to the narratee 
that part of itself which is not expressed. 

Note IL Contracted or Elliptical sentences may be used in ordinary 
narration, and in the transactions of common business, as a means of 
saving both talk and time. In important transactions. Contracted sen- 
tences should be used with great caution, because they are liable to 
be ambiguous. In legal documents, the sentences are amj)lified, instead 
of being contracted. 

Note III. The Ellipsis of language is a part of that labor-saving 
tendency, which is a characteristic of human inteUigence and of human 
progress. Heretofore, too little attention has been given to this subject, 
as a part of the Science of Language. The principles, according to 
which language is contracted, should be dearly and fully explained to 
the student. He should understand perfectly the thought which the 

1 Ellipsis, is, condition of; s=t, ; lip, has been left ; ^Z= ex, out. 

2 Contraction. Hon, ; trac, has been drawn ; con, together. 



CONTRACTED SIMPLE SENTENCES. 139 

contracted sentence is intended to express; what contractions are ad- 
missible, and what are inadmissible. 

157. A Simple Sentence is contracted, when one, 
or more of its rhetorical parts are not expressed ; in 
which case, one, or more of its logical parts must be 
understood. This gives rise to the following ; — 

Contractions of Simple Sentences. 

First. When a Subject is understood. 

1. Go in peace, x Y. 

That is, Go thou in peace ; or, Go ye in peace. 
Analysis, x, thou, or ye understood ; Y", go in peace. 

2. Grant thy favor, x Y. 

Do thou, or, Do ye grant thy favor. 

158. When the speaker is supposed to be in the pres- 
ence of the one addressed, we have no occasion for a 
name to designate the Subject of the sentence. 

Second, When an Affirmer is understood. 

3. Who watches here ? 

Answer. John, Xy. That is, John watches here. 
Analysis; X, John; y, watches here, understood. 

4. What drives the steamboat ? 
Answer. The steam. Xyz. 

Third. When the First Object is understood. 

5. John eats. X Tz. That is, John eats food, or vict - 
rnls kd. 

Analysis. John eats is a Contracted, Simple sentence. 
X, John ; Y, eats ; z, food, understood. 

H we assert that John eats, we virtually assert tliat he 
eats something. Hence, we sometimes use these formulas as 
contracted formulas, X Y — , that is, X Y minus Z, or X Y, 
z being understood. 

6. Ye shall sow in peace. X Yz. 



140 JTHE RHETOKIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Fourth When a Second Object is nnderstood. 

7. The land was ploughed. Z Yx^ or Z Y—. x under- 
stood. 

8. The earth was created. 

Fifth. Wlien a Eelator is understood. 

9. He gave me a dollar. X YZ, 
He gave a dollar to me. 

10. I am going home. JT Y. 

I am going to my home, or toward my home. 

Sixth. When the Eelator and Second Object with its 
adjuncts are contracted into a single word. 

11. He came in due time. He came timely. X. Y, 

12. Frojn good luck it happened. Luckily it happened. 

13. Study to be in truth emment.' Study to be truly emi- 
nent. 

OONTRACTIONS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

159. When the clauses of a Compound Sentence 
are not joined by a subordinate connector^ and have 
similar parts in each clause, one of these similar parts 
may be expressed in one clause, and understood in the 
others. 

160. The Contractions of Compound Sentences are 
divided into Primary or Simple^ and Secondary or Com- 
pound Contractions. 

Prir)iary or Simple Contractions. 

161. Primary or Simple Contractions are of five 
kinds, and occur as follows ; — 

162. First Primary Contraction. When the same 
Subject occurs in two or more of the clauses ; 

EULE. Fxpress the sidjject of the first clause^ and let the 
suhjects of the remaining clauses he understood. 



ELLIPSIS OF SENTENCES. 141 

Examples. 

1. DDprincipled men live knaves, and unprincipled men 
die beggars. 

Unprincipled men live^ etc., is a compound sentence, having two 
clauses, joined by the co-ordinate connector, and ; and, having the same 
phrase, unprincipled men^ in both clauses; hence, it may be contracted 
by expressing the subject of the first clause, and understanding that of 
the other clause. Its contracted form is ; — 

Unprincipled men hve knaves, and die beggars. 

2. John walks, rides, jumps, sits, and whistles. Birds sit, 
and birds stand, and birds hop, and birds fly. Fruit trees 
grow, and blossom, and bear fruit. 

Fruit trees grow, etc., is a compound sentence, having three clauses, 
joined by the co-ordinate connector, and. It is contracted ; the subject, 
fruit trees, being expressed in the first clause, and understood in the 
others. Its uncontracted or full form is; — 

Fruit trees grow, and fruit trees blossom, and fruit trees bear fruit. 

Note III. The subject of a clause, dependent in thought and iu 
form, may be understood, when it is logically the same as the subject 
of the independent clause. 

3. I expected myself to go with them. I expected to go 
with them, 

/ expected myself to go with them is a mixed sentence, having two 
clauses, joined by the dependent form of the second clause, myself or 
me, to go with them, and having its subjects, I, myself me, logically the 
same in both clauses ; hence, the subject of the first clause may be ex- 
pressed, and that of the second understood. In some cases, the second 
subject is always expressed. 

4. The boys desired to be promoted to a higher grade. The 
girls have prepared themselves to be examined in language. 

5. These men thought themselves H be far superior to their 
neighbors. 

6. A lesson, which is carelessl}^ studied, will be poorty re- 
cited. 

A lesson, which is, etc., is a compound sentence, having two clauses. 
Its subordinate clause, which is carelessly studied, is joined to its prin- 
cipal clause by the relative adjunct, which. It is a contracted sentence; 
the subject, lessons, being expressed in the first clause and un lerstood 
in the second. Its uncontracted form is ; — 

A lesson, which lesson is carelessly studied, will be poorly recited 



142 THE RHETOKTO OF LANGUAGE. 

7. There are two kinds of books, viz. ; the good books, and 
the bad books. 

8. Sarah plays and sings. 

Analysis. Sarah plays and sings is a compound sentence, contracted 
according to the First Primary Form. Its expanded, or uncontracted 
form is, Sarah plays and Sarah sings. 

9. Barclay and Penn were personal friends and travelled 
much together. 

10. Dissenters and Non-conformists, now suffered many 
disabilities in Virginia, and looked to the wilderness for free- 
dom. 

11. "On either of which, he would dispute, 

Confute, change hands, and still confute." 

12. The innumerable questions, which a sensible child asks, 
demand an answer. That is, which innumerable, &c. 

13. He heard, but disregarded the counsels of his teacher. 

14. Distance should neither retard, nor prevent the fulfil- 
ment of duty. 

15. If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise for thyself, 

16. George came, although he could not stay. 

17. He will come, provided he receives my letter. 

18. I will inform you, when I think it proper. 

1 ©S. Second Primary Contraction. When the Affirmers 
are alike in both clauses. 

Rule. When objects occur ^ express the first affirmer^ 
and understand the second; when no object occurs^ un- 
derstand the first affirmer^ and express the second. 

19. Gamesters never live long, and racers never live long. 
Contracted Form — Gamesters and "Hcers never Hve long. 

20. We were exposed by nighi, and we were exposed by 
day, until the boats came to our rescue. 

Contracted Form — ' We were exposed night ana day, until the boats 
came to our rescue. (Because objects occur, we express the first andl 
understand the second affirmer.) 



THIRD PRIMARY CONTRACTION. 143 - 

21. John does not improve but William does improve. 

22. They sleep well if they sleep soundly. 

23. Anna gave gold, Sarah gave silver, Thomas gave food, 
and James gave clothing. 

24. The book is taught too much, and the subject too little. 

Analysis. The book is taught too much, and the subject too little, 
is a compound sentence, contracted in the Second Primary Form. Its 
ancontracted, or expanded form is. The book is taught too much by 
the Teacher, and the subject is taught too little by the Teacher. 

25. A gentleman presided in one department and a lady in 
the other. 

26. The English were commanded by Sir William John- 
son, the French by Baron Dieskau. 

27. The earth and the sky and the sea are ever changing. 

28. The sunlight gives beauty and the moisture freshness 
to vegetation. 

29. The monuments of past ages and the memorials of in- 
dividual greatness are before you. 

1 64. Third Primary Contraction, When the First Ob- 
jects are the same. 

EULE. Generally., in independefnt sentences^ understand 
the former^ and express the latter first object. In depen- 
dent sentences^ express the former., and understand the 
latter. 

30. He makes the books and I sell the books. 
Contracted Form — He makes and I sell the books. (Independent.) 

31. I sell the books, which books he makes. 

Contracted Form — I sell the books, which he makes. (Dependent.) 

32. Farmers raise the grain and millers grind the grain. 

33. He has very little money and he needs a great deal 
of money. 

Instead of contracting these sentences, we often put a personator in 
the place of the second word, to make a pleasing variation of sounds. 



IM THE KHETOKIC OF LANGUAGE. 

34. Farmers raise the grain and millers grind it. 

35. Carpenters build houses and we dwell in houses. 

36. Prudence heaps up and prodigality scatters riches. 

Analysis ; Prudence heaps up and prodigality scatters riches, is a 
compound sentence, contracted in the Third Primary Form. Its ex- 
panded, or uncontracted form is, Prudence heaps up riches and prodi- 
gality scatters riches. 

37. The latter attacked and the former plundered the 
town. 

38. The rapid increase of the new colony excited and its 
military array justified the fears of its Spanish neighbors. 

39. And, if the night hath gathered, or if the darkness 
hath concealed aught of evil. 

40. We saw the child, which you mentioned. 

41. We saw the man, whom you mentioned, (whom man.) 

42. I will defend the tower, if they assail it. 

43. We will respect his motives, whose motives are vir- 
tuous. 

44. The farmer raises the grain and the dealer sells it. 

1^5. Fourth Primary Contraction, When the Second 
Objects are alike. 

Rule. Generally understand the former^ and ex- 
press the latter second olject. 

45. Steam-ships travel over the sea and sailing vessels sail 
over the sea. 

Contracted Form — Steam-ships travel and sailing vessels sail over 
the sea. 

46. We have just come from the town and you are just 
going to the town. 

47. I saw gold there and James saw copper there. 

48. I executed my mission in haste and you performed 
your task in haste. 

49. Peter's aid came timely, and Samuel's letter came in 
good time. 



FIFTH PRIMARY CONTRACTION. 145 

50. Seth Sothel conducted himself disgracefully in Vir- 
ginia, and afterward behaved in a disgraceful nianner in 
Carolina. 

51. He reads and she sings delightfully. 

Analysis, He reads and she sings delightfully is a connected sentence 
contracted as in the Fourth Primary Contraction. 

Its expanded, or uncontracted form is — He reads delightfully, and 
she sings delightfully; or, He reads in a delightful manner, and she 
sings in a delightful manner. (Prop, x., Sixth.) 

52. He goes there and they expect him daily. 

166. Fifth Primary Contraction. When the same Con- 
nector is used several times. 

Rule. Understand all but the last connector. 

Note IY. If all the connectives be expressed, the expression is 
called Poly-syn-det-on} (many connectors). If aU but one be understood, 
it is called Asyn-det-on^ (without connectors). 

53. John and James and Thomas and "William and Joseph 
study faithfully. Polysyndeton. 

54. John, James, Thomas, William, and Joseph study faith- 
fully. Asyndeton. 

Note Y. Mixed compound sentences are sometimes contracted by 
omitting the to, when used as a part of the aflQrmer in dependent ob- 
jective sentences. 

55. I bade him to jump. Contracted. I bade him jump. 

56. He heard her to speak. Co7i. He heard her speak. 

57. You asked them to sing. JSfot contracted. You 
a^ked them to sing. 

58. John told him to leave it. N'ot contracted. 

59. We saw tliem to strike the horse. Con. We saw them 
strike the horse. 

60. I told him to speak freely and to declare his views, 
but he declined to do it. 

'- Polysyndeton. {e)ton = {6)ti<m, state of that which ; d, put, adds ; syn = 9wn^ 
together ; poly^ many. 

2 Asyndeton, syndet(m, ; a, not. This prefix, a, is sometimes called 

Primitive A. h 



cities. 



146 THE KHETOKIC OF LANGUAGE. 

16T The Secondary, or Compound Contractions are 

formed by nsing two, or more Primary Contractions an 

he same Compound Sentence. These Oontract.ons are 

ideaccordingtotheprinciples laid down m Primary 

Contractions. 

C.l. He ^^iH bestow food, and he wiH bestow raiment. 
Contracted Form -n. will bestow food and raiment. (First and 
Second Primary Forms.) 

62. The king made great works, and the king made fenced 

J.5" We took a long walk, and we took a pleasant walk. 
Contracted For» - We took a long and pleasant walk. (First and 
Third Primary Forms.) 

6-i. " The true monarchs of eveiy eomitry are those, whose 
<;way is over thought and emotion." 

^ U„contracted Forn - The true monarchs of ^^^^l^T^^l^' 
whose sway is over thought, and the true monarchs of eveiy country 
are those, whose sway is over emotion. 

65. '-Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Holland, Fra.nce. Swe- 
den, Denmark, and the Baltic region, contributed large quo.as 
of people, and other colonial instrumentalities. 

Tl-is example contains sixteen simple clauses. Its uncontracted 
or ei nded fo m is. Scotland contributed large quotas of people, and 
Ltland con^ibuted large quotas of other colonial instrumentahnes, 
^-o of Ireland, Germaav, &c. ^ , 

This example also iUustTates the convenience and economy of the 
Contraction of Compound Sentences. 

66 The following examples exhibit some curious uses oi 
.onnectors and their effects on the significations of sentences 
We <tart with Mght simple sentences, which finally become 
Sixteen simple clauses by inserting a single connector. 

1. John clothed the man. X Y Z. 

2. John clothed the boy. X Y Z, 

3. Ann clothed the woman. X Y Z> 

4. Ann clothed the girl X T Z. 

T..K^ f..r1 fh^ -.nnai-i X 7 7.. 



SECONDARY CONTRACTIONS. 147 

6. John fed tlie boy. XTZ, 

7. Ann fed the woman. X YZ. 

8. Ann fed the girl. X TZ. 

Now, by unking the first and second, the third and fourth, the fifth 
and sixth, the seventh and eighth examples, and contracting, we reduce 
the whole to Jour Compound Contracted Sentences. 

9. John clothed the man and the boy. X Y Z -\- xy Z, 

10. Ann clothed the woman and the girL XYZ-^xyZ. 

11. John fed the man and the bov. X TZ -\- xy Z. 

12. Ann fed the woman and the ^wX. XYZ-^xyZ, 

Now, by connecting examples nine and eleven, and also ten and 
twelve, and again contracting, we have; — 

13. John clothed and fed the man and the boy. XTz + 
XYz-VxYZ-\-xyZ. 

14. Ann clothed and fed the woman and the girl. X Yz + 
X Yz + xYZ + xy Z. 

Now, connecting examples 13 and 14, by placing the connector 
between the sentences, we liave the eight simple clau-ses in one com- 
pound sentence. But, if we place the connector between John and 
Ann, and then contract, we will cause the sentence to state, that John 
performs two different acts (clothes and feeds), to four different persons 
(man, boy, woman, and girl), making eight simple statements ; and, of 
course, the same statements o^re made concerning Ann. So, that the 
use of this last connector makes the expression equivalent to sixteen 
simples. 

15. John and Ann clothed and fed the man, the woman, 
the boy, and the girl. 

This example illustrates the importance of placing the con- 
nector in the proper place. 



148 THE KHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Special Conteactions. 

Note YL Sometimes a contraction takes place, when a second ob- 
ject is logically the same as the subject of the next clause. This is 
especially the case, when the second object is preceded by the relator, 
/or, and the next clause is preceded by a connector signifying cause; 
as, one of the connectors, for, because, that, etc. 

1. He called for me, for I was to go with him. 

In this example, we have the second object, me, logically the same 
as the subject, I, of the next clause ; while, the second object, me, has 
its relation shown by the relator, for ; and, the co-ordinate clause, / 
was to go with him, is joined by the causative connector, for ; hence, 
we may omit for I was, and we have the contracted sentence ; 

He called for me to go with him. 

Under Second Objects, we have already shown, that me to go iviih 
him, might be regarded as a sentential second object, having its rela- 
tion to the predicate, called, shown by the relator, for. We, however, 
prefer to regard these as contracted sentences; because, when the 
second object and the following subjects are not logically the same, this 
contraction cannot occur. Thus ; — 

2. He called for me, for he was to go with me. 

3. He sought for boohs, to enable him to occupy his atten- 
tion. He sought for books to occupy his attention, 

4. The rich man gave money to the poor, that these might 
he enahled to buy food for their children. 

5. At ten, a child; at twenty, wild; at thirty, a wife, if 
ever ; at forty, strong ; at fifty, wise ; at sixty, rich, or never. 

6. I do not know who did it. I do not know the person, 
who [person] did it 

N. B. The student should now select some piece^ worthy of 
careful study ^ and study each period, carefully ; and, lohile doing 
so, expand or amplify the contracted sentences^ and ellipAicise or 
contract those not contracted. Take, for instance^ the last selection 
in this Work '' The Ode to the Deity.'' 



SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 149 



Syntax of Sentences. 

1 68. FouTthfhe Syntax of Sentences. 

I The word, syntax^"- means putting to- 
gether. 
The Syntax of a Sentence is the 
science and art of putting each immediate element of a sentence in 
its projjer place or position. 

17©. Nomenclature. The Names or Terms, -used 
in the Syntax of Sentences, are Emphatic Elements, 
Partially Emphatic Elements, Position of Elements, and 
Transposed Elements. 

Emphatic Elements. 

171. The Emphatic Element of a sentence is the word^ the 
phrase^ or the clause^ naming the most important or peculiar 
part of its thought 

Examples. 

1. I am seldom troubled for a word; but, my friend, Mr. 
Burke, is never troubled for the word. 

2. I saw, over the gate, the words, ^^ Beware of the Bog.^^ 

3. In spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, 

One truth is clear. Whatever is^ is right. 

Partially Emphatic Elements. 

172. The Partially Emphatic Element of a sentence is 
less important than an emphatic and more important than the 
remaining elements of the sentence. 

1. A WISE son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is 
the heaviness of his mother. 

^ Syntax, tax «= tac = thet^ that which has been put, placed, arranged ; syn^ to- 
gether. ^&Q synthesis. 



150 THE EHETOEIC OF LAKGUAGE. 

In this example, wise and foolish are the emjphatic^ while glad and 
heaviness are the partially emphatic elements. 

173. The Empliatic elements of sentences may be 
designated in four ways ; — 

First In spoken language, by using a greater force or 
stress of voice while uttering the Emphatic element. 

2. Alexander said, ''If I were not Alexander , I would be 
Diogenes J ^ 

Second. In written language, by underscoring the 
emphatic element. 

3. S4lexand&T conqu&r&d Darius, 

Third. In printed language, by using a different hind 

of type ; generally, the Italic. 

4. Alexander conquered Darius. 

Fourth. By placing the Emphatic element at or near 
the heginning of the sentence ; because the first place in 
a sentence is the most emphatic ; while, the last place 
is the partially emphatic. 

5. Wlio conquered Darius? Alexander conquered Darius. 

6. W^Ao was conquered by Alexander? Darius ^^d,^ con- 
quered by Alexander. 

Note I. When the construction of a responsive sentence is such 
that its emphatic element cannot be placed at or near the beginning, 
the elements preceding it are usually omitted. 

7. Whoyn did Alexander conquer ? Darius. That is, 
Alexander conquered Darius. 

8. I, Paul, myself write these things to you. 

9. None but the brave, none hut the brave, none but the 
Irave deserve the fair. 

10. An Irish barrister, in the heat of debate, said, "The 
Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland, and this House, are the worst sub- 
jects the king has ;" being called to retract, he apologized by 



SYJSTTAX OF SENTENCES. 151 

paying, " I am accused of having said that the Lord-Lieutenant 
of Ireland and this House are the worst subjects the king has. 
I SAID so. It is TRUE, and I am sorry for it." If we read as 
above, he is sorry that such a statement is true ; but, if we 
read it, "I said so^ it is true; and I am sorry for it," then it 
becomes an apology. 

Position of Elements. 

Lit. Def. The word, posiiion^^ means the condition of that which has 
teen placed or fixed. 

174. The Position of the Elements of a Sentence is that 
part of its Syntax^ hy ivhich, the mood of the sentence and the mu- 
tual relations of its elements are shown. 

1 75. The Positions of Elements may be considered ; 
first, as they occur in Historic or Declarative Sentences ; 
second^ as they occur in Interrogative and Eesponsive 
Sentences ; thi^^d^ as they occur in Imperative Sen- 
tences ; fourth^ as they occur in Exclamative Sentences ; 
and fifth^ as they occur when the Elements are Trans- 
posed. 

In Historic or Declarative Sentences, 

176. First The Positions of the elements of His- 
toric or Declarative Sentences are; — 

First ; The subject and its adjuncts. 
Second ; The affirmer and its adjuncts. 
Third; The first object and its adjuncts. 
Fourth ; The second object and its adjuncts. 

Examples. 

Fi/rst Place. Second Place. Third Place. Fourth Place. 

1. True wisdom always leads its possessor to some practical results. 

2. The crew deserted the old ship in a moment of peril. 

3. The old ship was deserted by the crew in a moment of 
peril. 

1 PosTTiox. {i)tion, \ pos=pon, put, placed. 



152 THE BHETOBIC OF LANGUAGE. 

4. I, "Wisdom, dwell with Prudence. 

5. The colonies were declared to be independent in July, 
1776. 

Note II. In ihe Latic language, the subject is put in the first place ; 
the first object in the second place ; the second object in the third place ; 
and the affirmer in the last place. 

Thus, ex., 1, becomes ; True wisdom its possessor to some practical 
results always leads. 

Note III. In the English language, the subject of a subject clause 
is placed before the principal predicate, and the remainder of the sub- 
ject clause is placed after the principal predicate. In the Latin, the 
whole of the subject clause is placed before the principal predicate. 

6. Saturn is said to have come into Italy. 

7. Saturnus in Italiam venisse dicitur. Saturn into Italy 
to have come is said. 

In Interrogative and Responsive Sentences. 

177. Second. In Interrogative Sentences, the em- 
phatic word, which, is either a predicate or an adjunct, 
is placed at the beginning of the sentence ; while, 
Eesponsive Sentences are constructed like Historic or 
Declarative Sentences. 

8. Didst thou the work? Yes; or, I did [the work]. 

9. Didst thou do the work? Yes; or, I did [do the work]. 

10. Wert thou doing the work? Yes; or, I was [doing 
the work]. 

11. Was the work done by thee? Yes; or. The work was 
done by me. 

12. Who did the work ? John [did the work]. 

13. By whom was the work done ? [The work was done] 
by John. 

In Imperative Sentences. 

178. Third. In Imperative Sentences, the emphat- 
ic element, which is either a principal or auxiliary 
predicate, is placed at the beginning of the sentence. 



SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 153 

14. Eat [ye] this food. Do [yej eat this food. Do [ye] be 
eating this food. Let this food be eaten by you. 

In Exclamative Sentences. 

179. Fourth. In Exclamative Sentences, tlie em- 
pliatic elements are subjects, predicates, second objects, 
and adjuncts; hence, Exclamatives have all the differ- 
ent forms of construction. 

Transposed Elements. 

180. Fifth. When the elements are Transposed. 

Lit. Def. The word, transposed,^ mesins placed beyond [another]. 

181. A Transposed element is one which is used out of its 
usual place in the sentence. 

Examples. 

1. In the beginning^ the word was with God. 

2. If he sleep, he shall do well. 

3. When Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. 

Note I. Some instruction in Syntax has already been given in the 
forepart of this Chapter. Additional instruction will be found in 
Chapters lY. and Y. 

* Teansposed. ed^ state of; pos, ; ti^ans^ beyond, across. 

7* 



154 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Punctuation. 

Lit. Def. The word, pwictuatioii^- means that lohich pierces, stabs, 

183. Punctuation is a name given to the science and art 
of using certain Points^ Signs^ or Marks^ in loritten language^ as 
aids in distinguishing sentences^ 'parts of sentences^ phrases^ or 
VjOtcIs. ^ 

Note L As far as these points enable the reader to distinguish Sen- 
tences and the character of Sentences, it is of great importance that 
they be known and observed by the reader ; but, it will not do to teach 
the student that, "These Points are only to be observed as stopping 
places for the purpose of resting the organs of speech." A good 
reader will often pause where these points are inadmissible. For^ 
when the words, representing the different Logical Parts of a thought^ 
axe not mingled, so as to prevent it, we should make a slight pause 
between each of the Logical and, also, some of the Rhetorical Parts of 
a sentence ; as — 

1. " God — moves — in a mysterious way, 

His wonders — to perform ; 

He — plants his footsteps — in the sea^ 

And rides — upon the storm." 

The dashes show that the voice pauses at places, in which no Point 
could be inserted. 

Note II. The thought or meaning of a sentence frequently depends 
on its Punctuation. A barber put up the following; — 

2. " What do you think I shave for a penny and give you 
a drink." 

As it had no Punctuation, some of his customers read it ; — 

3. "What do you think? I shave for a penny and give 
you a drink." 

But, when a customer demanded the drink, the cunning barber read 
it;- 

^ PuNCTTjATiON. {a)Uon^ ; pwnctUf pierces, stabs. 



PUNCTUATION. 155 

4. "What ! do you think I shave for a penny and give you 
a drink ! 

183. The Characters, -ased in Punctuation, are of 
five kinds ; First, those used at the end of sentences ; 
Second, those used to show the parts, or interruptions of 
sentences; Third, those used to show contractions; 
Fourth, those used for reference ; and Fifth, those used 
for pronunciation, 

1 84. First The Characters, used at the end of sen- 
tences, are the Terminal, the Intefrrogative, and the Ex- 
clamative Periods. 

Lit. Def. The word, period,^ means circular path. 

185. The Terminal Period [ . ] is used at the end of simple 
and of compound sentences, where the thought and text both end 
at the same word. 

1. "No man may put off the law of God." 

2. " Covet earnestly the best gifts, and yet show I unto 
you a more excellent way." 

186. The Interrogative Period or Interrogation 
Point [?] is used in the place of a Terminal Period when the 
sentence asks a question, 

3. "Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased?" 

4. "How now, Tubal? "What news from Genoa? Hast 
thou found my daughter?" 

5. " Angelo. Now, what is the matter, provost? 

" Provost. Is it your will Claudio shall die to-morrow ? 
" Angelo. Did not I tell thee, yea ? Hadst thou not order ? 
Why dost thou ask again ?" 

187. The ExcLAMATiVE Period or Exclamation Point [ I J 
is used in the place of the Terminal, when an emotion or a passion 
is expressed. 

6. "Can gold gain friendship? Impotence of hope I" 

■^ Period, od., path, road ; peri =" circium^ about, around. 



156 THE KHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

7. '^ Oh, monstrous ! Oh, strange ! We are haunted. 
Pray, masters ! Fly, masters ! Help!" 

188. Second, The Characters, used to show the ^ar^5 
or interrupiions of sentences, are the Colon^ Semicolon^ 
Comma^ Quotation^ Dash^ Parenthesis^ and Brackets, 

Lit. Def. The Vv^ord, colon^ means a memler or a division. 

1811. The Colon [:] is used where the text stoj)s, while the 
thought continues. 

XoTE I, The Colon is used before a distinct, or formal hst of par- 
ticulars, separated by Semicolons ; as, — 

1 . We will consider the parts of a plant as follows : first, 
the roots ; second, the stem ; third, the foliage. 

ISTOTE IL The Colon is used between the larger clauses of compound 
sentences, when the less clauses are separated by the semicolon ; as, — 

2. '^ He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended ; 
One dream of his childhood, his fancy passed o'er : 

But his battles are fought, and his marching is ended ; 
The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more." 

Note III. The Colon is used between the parts of a compound sen- 
tence, when one explains the cause, the reason, or the effect of the 
other, and the connector is omitted; as, — 

3. Bevvare of idleness : it tendeth to poverty. Beware of 
idleness ; for it tendeth to poverty. 

Note IY. The above rules are given for those, who prefer to use the 
Colon; rather than because we deem it a necessary, or even a con- 
venient character in Punctuation, except it be in proportions. Of the 
many Systems of Punctuation, which we have examined, not one con- 
:ains rules distinguishing the use of the Colon from that of the other 
characters ; nor do we think it possible to give such rules ; and hence, 
we agree with those who reject it altogether. 

Lit. Def. The word, seinicolon,^ means a half colon. 

18*0- The Semicolon [;] is used luhere the text is inter- 
rupted, ivhile the idea continues or is not fully completed. 

■> Semicolon. colo?i, uiember, limb, diyision ; semi == Jieoni, half. 



PUNCTUATION. 157 

Note V. Those, who use the colon, teach that it is to bo placed be- 
tween sentences more remotely related ; while, the semicolon is to be 
placed between those more nearly related ; so that the whole difference 
between the two is made to depend on the kind of relation between the 
sentences. Now, since this relation is entirely a matter of opinion, it 
follows, that no definite test exists, by which to determine its remote- 
ness, or nearness; and, of course, no way to distinguish the use of the 
one from the use o: the other, except by arbitrary rules. 

Note YI. The Semicolon is used before a distinct list of particulars, 
separated by commas ; as, — 

4. The human race is divided into four classes ; the Euro- 
pean, the American, the Asiatic, and the African. 

Note YII. The Semicolon is used between two sentences, where 
one explains the reason, or the effect of the other ; as, — 

5. Beware of idleness; for it tendeth to poverty. 

If the colon be not used at all, example, 8, should be punctuated with 
the Semicolon, and example, 5, with the comma, or as it is. 

6. The name of the defendant in this action having been 
called, Mr. Jay responded as counsel, and said ; — 

'' May it please the court," etc. 

If it be written; — and said, " May it please — '' etc., then the dash 
should be omitted ; but, when the part belonging after the affirmer — as 
in example, 6, or, after the connector, as before example, 5, — is trans- 
ferred, the dash takes its place. 

7. "Read; not for the purpose of contradicting and con- 
futing ; nor, of believing and taking for granted ; nor, of find- 
ing material for argument and conversation ; but, in order to 
weigh and consider the thoughts of others.'' 

Note YIII. A Semicolon is placed between the clauses of a com- 
pound sentence, which are farther divisible by commas ; as, — 

8. "In youth we are looking forward to things, that are to 
come; in old age, we are looking backward to things, that 
are gone past; in manhood, although^we appear, indeed, to 
be more occupied in things, that are present, yet even that is 
too often absorbed in vague determinations to be vastly happy 
on some future day, when we have time." 



158 THE KHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

XCTE IX. A Semicolon is used, when several sentences in the same 
period are dependent, whether contracted or uncontracted. 

9. '' For to one, is given by the spirit the word of wisdom ; 
to another, the word of knowledge by the same spirit ; to 
another, faith by the same spirit," etc. 

10. "Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her 
operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; 
that knowledge will always be progressive ; and, that all fu- 
ture generations will continue to make discoveries, of which 
we have not the slightest idea." 

Example, 10, might be punctuated by using commas instead of the 
Semicolons. Some would use the colon, or the Semicolon, in examples 
like the following, in which the exclamative is manifestly the proper 
point ; — 

1 ] , Yes ; the gentleman has dared to assert. Yes ! the, etc. 

12. No; you have judged, as I have. No ! you, etc. 

Lit. Def. The word, comma,^ means a part cut off. 

191. The Comma [ , ] is used to show a Ireah or interrup- 
tion in a sentence. 

Note X. The Comma may be understood, when no ambiguity will be 
occasioned by omitting it. Such cases are to be considered the same as 
contractions, and on the same principle. 

Note XL In simple sentences, a comma is used after transposed 
parts ; and, after a break preceding a transposed part ; as, — 

13. Without labor, there is no excellence. 

14. To the true, virtue becomes habitual. 

In example, 13, the comma may be understood; but, not so in ex- 
ample, 14 ; lest the reader mistake true as an adjunct of virtue — true 
virtue. 

15. To the intelligent and virtuous, old age presents a 
scene of tranquil enjoyment. 

16. Vice, to the pure in heart, is never attractive. 

Note XIL A Comma should be expressed, or understood at the end 
of every clause of a compound sentence, except those requiring a 
period, a colon, or a semicolon. 

1 Comma, ma^ a part ; com^ cut, separated. 



PUKCTUATION. 159 

1 7. " Why, for so many a year, has the poet and the phi- 
losopher wandered amid the fragments of Athens or of Rome ; 
and paused, with strange and kindling feelings, amid their 
broken columns, their mouldering temples, their deserted 
plains ? It is because their day of glory is past." 

Before the italicised connectors, Commas are understood. 

18. "The pride of wealth is contemptible, the pride of 
learning is pitiable, the pride of dignity is ridiculous, and the 
pride of bigotry is insupportable." 

Note XIII. A Comma should be expressed, or understood before 
and after a relative or subjoined sentence. 

19. ''Civilization, vjJiich on the whole has never gone hack- 
ward^ is new-shaped and modified by each particular people." 

20. "Simple truths, when simply explained^ are more easily 
comprehended, I believe, than is commonly supposed. 

Note XIY. "When a connector, or a word beginning a sentence, is 
understood, a comma should be used, except it be a very short explan- 
atory clause. 

21. " In what school did the Washingtons, Henrys, Han- 
cocks, and Rutledges, of America, learn the principles of civil 
liberty?" 

22. "The cause, I knew not, I diligently searched out." 

23. Perfect sincerity, earnestness of manner, a thorough 
conviction of the truth he utters, extensive knowledge, sound 
sense, keen sensibility, solid judgment, a great command of 
language, a correct and graceful elocution, are some of the 
essentials of oratory, or eloquence. 

jSTote XT. The above directions for the use of the Comma, to- 
^"ether with what has been said under the other characters, and the 
exercise of some discretion on the part of the writer as to when he 
shall insert and when omit, will enable him to use the Comma correctly. 

Lit. Def. The word, quotation,^ means the state or condition of how 
much. 

* Quotation. aUon^ ; t, many, much ; quo^ how. 



160 THE RHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

193. The Quotation ['^ "] is used^ when a passage is 
taken from another narrator in his oion words. It consists of 
two inverted commas at the beginning and two not inverted.^ or 
apostrophes^ at the end. 

24. Christ said, '' Suffer little children to come unto me^ 
and forbid them not ; for of such is the kingdom of God." 

25. '' How sleep the brave, who sink to rest 

With all their country's wishes bless'd." 

Note XYI. A Quotation within a Quotation is shown \>j using one 
inverted comma at one end and an apostrophe at the other. 

26. ^' Tell me not, in mournful numbers, 

' Life is but an empty dream.' " 

27. Said the preacher, "My friends- impressed by this 
dispensation, we can not forbear to exclaim, ' How mysterious 
are the wa3^s of Providence ! ' and yet, wo shall one day 
rejoice in view of the wisdom, goodness, and mercy of this 
very event." 

Note XYII. When several separate paragraphs are quoted, the two 
commas are placed at the beginning of each, but the final two are 
used at the end of the last paragraph only. 

28. ''No man can be happy who is destitute of good feel- 
ings and generous principles. 

'' No man, who is indifferent to the happiness of others, can 
possess good feelings and generous principles. 

"Therefore, no man can be happy, who is indifferent to the 
happiness of others." 

Note XYIIl. When merely the substance of another's remark is 
given, without giving the exact words of the author, the quotations are 
not to be used ; as — 

29. The speaker said that he believed the story to be true. 

30. The speaker said, " I believe the story to be true." 
Lit. Def. The word, dash, means that ivhich strikes. 

193. The Dash [ — ] is used ; first, instead of wo-rds or 
letters placed elsewhere^ or omitted ; second, wheii a lengthy pas- 



PUNCTUATION. 161 

sage is inserted hetween the parts of a sentence ; and third, when 
an ah^upt transition occurs. 

31. First. He began by saying ; — 

" Can I forget that I have been branded as an outlaw V 

32. In the village of N — s, in the state of L — , in the year 
of our Lord, 18 — . 

33. Second. '' What a lesson the word, diligence, contains? 
How profitable is it for every one of ns to be reminded, — as 
we are reminded, when we make ourselves aware of its deri- 
vation from diligOj to love, — that the only secret of true 
industry in our work is love of that work ! " 

34. Third. Love asks gold; — to build a home full of de- 
lights for father, mother, wife, children, and — 

35. Lady Teazle. Nay, you know if you will be angry 
without any reason, my dear — 

Sir Peter. There, now you want to quarrel again. 
Lady T. No, I am sure I don't. But if you will be so 
peevish — 

Sir P, There, now ! who begins first ? 

Note XIX. The dash is used before an abrupt turn; as, — 

36. "The king, himself, has followed her — 

"When she has gone before." 

Note XX. The Dash is used before the repetition of a word, which 
has just been uttered ; and, being repeated emphaticaUj, is called the 
Echo; as, — 

37. Compelled by necessity — necessity^ the stern parent of 
invention. 

38. Shall I think of heaven — heaven^ did I say? 

Note XXI. In elocution, the Dash is sometimes used to separate 
the emphatic words ; as, — 

39. " Such are the excuses, which iiTeligion offers. Could 
you have believed that they were so empty — so unworthy — 
so hollow — so absurd ? " 



162 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Lit. Def. The word, pa/renthesis^^ means that which takes together. 

IflJ:. The Marks of Parenthesis ( ) mclude a sentence^ 
a number, or a reference to some other part of the hook^ 7iot of 
stiff cient importance to he made a connected part of the sentence. 

40. "You know, my dear (the words 'my dear' always 
denote the beginning of a quarrel), that you forgot the clock ?" 

41. " The play, I remember, pleased not the million; 'twas 
caviare to the general ; but, it was (as I received it, and 
others, whose judgment, in such matters, cried at the top of 
mine) an excellent play; — " 

Note XXII. A Parenthesis, inclosing an interrogative period, 
throws doubt on a preceding statement; as, — 

42. He gives out that he is a son of a nobleman (?), and 
is daily expecting a remittance from home. It may be so (?). 

Note XXIII. A Parenthesis, inclosing an exclamative period, de- 
notes irony, or contempt; as, — 

43. These fellows are reformers (!), philanthropists (!), so 
are the evil spirits of Pandemonium, and in very much the 
same way. 

44. Yet Brutus says, he was ambitious ; and sure, Brutus 
is an honorable man (!). 

Lit. Dep. The word, 'bracket,'^ means an?^, branch. 

f S5. The Brackets [ ] are used, to inclose an explana- 
tion^ or the correction of mistakes made by an author^ from ivhom 
we are quoting ; the pjronunciations of words; the dates of 
events ; and, frequently, for the same purpose as the marks of 
parenthesis. 

45. ''The lover shall not sigh gratis; the humorous man 
shall end his part in peace ; [the clown shall make those 
laugh, whose lungs are tickled o' the sere;] and the lady 
shall say her mind freely ;" — {Hamlet. 

1 Paebnthebis. (eVzs, that which; th, puts, places, joins; en. together; i?(zr, 
equally, as one. 

2 Bhaceet, et, that which is ; hracJc = lirac, an arm, branch. 



PUNCTUATION. 163 

46. In this year [April, 1775], was fought the battle of 
J jexington. 

4*7. This series of names present [presents] no new ones. 

48. '^ In the bivouac [bee-voo-ak] of life." 

49. Queen. What wilt thou do ? thou wilt not murder me ? 
Help, help, ho I 

Polonius. [Behind.'] What, ho I help I 
Hamlet How, now ! a rat ? [Draws.l Dead for a ducat, 
dead. \_Mahes a pass through the screen.] 

Note XXIY, The marks of Parenthesis are used by some instead 
of the brackets ; either is correct. 

19G. Third. The Characters, nsed to show abbrevia- 
tions or contractions, are the Contractive Period, the 
Apostrophe^ the Ditto Marlis, the Hyphen^ the Brace^ the 
Ji}llipsis^ the Leaders.^ and the Caret. 

107. The CoNTRACTiYE Period is used where the first part 
of the word stands for the whole of the word. 

1. ''And the earth was without form and void." Gen. c. 
I., V. 2. 

Note I. Sometimes a dash may be used instead of the Contractive 
Period. 

Lit. Def. The word, apostrophes^ means something turned away. 

108. The Apostrophe ['] is used where letters are omitted 
at the heginning^ or from the middle of a word, and in the ter- 
minations of some adjuncts. 

2. 'Twill glide o'er the waters. 

3. I'll meet thee in the dungeon's gloom. 

4. I saw Henry's table at the JVEechanics' Institute. 

Note II. The Apostrophe is used where more than one letter, sign, 
or symbol is meant ; as, — 

5. In the word, mississippi^ we find one m, four ^'5, four 
s^s^ and two p''s. 

1 Apostrophe, e, ; stroph == strop^ turn ; apo, from, away. 



164 THE KHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE, 

6. In 66 + 666 + 6 — 1 — 111, we find six 6's, two + 's, two 
— 's, and four I's. 

7. Dot your i's, cross your t's, and make your A's, Y's, 
N's, M's, and Ws distinct. 

Lit. Def. The word, ditto,'^ means said^ aforesaid, 

199. The Ditto Maries or Double Commas [ "] are two 
inverted commas^ placed under a wordj to show that it is to he 
repeated. 

8. 10 mills make 1 cent. 
100 '' '' 1 dime. 

Lit. Def. The word, hyphen,^ means into one, 

300. TJie Hyphen [-] is used to show that the^artSj he- 

tween which it stands^ are to he taken together. 

9. The pastry-cook, the clock-maker, and the washer- 
woman were over-looking the affairs of the organ-grinder. 

Note III. The Hyphen is used to show the composition, and the 
syllabication of words ; as, — 

10. Ab-sti-nence is compounded from Ahs-tin-ence. 

Note IY. The Hyphen is used, in its general sense, to join the 
parts of a word found in two lines. 

Note Y. The Hyphen is used to show peculiar pronunciations ; as, — 

11. " S-0-l-o-m-o-n is a perpetual calm ; should the children^ 
in their play, knock over the tea-table and its contents, he 
looks quietly up from his book, and drawls out, ' A-i-n-t y-o-u 
r-a-t-h-e-r n-o-i-s-y, c-h-i-1-d-r-e-n ? ' " 

Note YI. Sometimes, the Hyphen is used to distinguish words ; as, — 

12. Recreation, amusement ; re-creation, to make again. 

13. White -pine boards must be made from the white pine; 
but white pine-boards may be made from any kind of pine. 

14. Are these, White -pond water-lilies, or white pond- 
water lilies, or white-pond-water lilies ? 

1 Ditto. {f)o, that which ; dit = die, has been said, 
a Hyphen, hen, one ; hyp, into, under. 



PUKCTTTATION. 165 

Lit. Dep. The word, drace^'^ means an arm or branch, 

301. The Brace [^ — *-^n] is used to join several distinct 
parts to one common part 

15. 1,000 mills ) 10,000 mills ) ( ^D. E. 

100 cents > equal $1. 1,000 cents [• are -I IB. 
10 dimes) 100 dimes ) ($10. 

Note VII. The principle of contraction, by which we use the Brace 
in the tables, is the same as thatj by which we contract compound 
sentences. 

16. John ) T ,. . A,' A. v. \ ^^''' 

A >■ clothed and fed the poor -l woman. 
^^ ' ( child. 

202. The Marks of Ellipsis P ^ ^ or . . . ] are used to 
show the omission of letters^ words, sentences, paragraphs, chap- 
ters, etc. 

Note Y'III. Usually, when the marks are used to show an omission 
of letters, a point is used for each omitted letter ; or, we may use the 
dash. 

17. G^^^^e W^^^^^^*%, I 1 P m, and B— n 

F— n. 

18. ^^ Brutus. [Opens the letter, and reads.] ^Brutus, thou 
sleep'' st; awahe, and see thyself Shall Rome, &c. Speak, 
strike, redress I Brutus, thou sleep'' st ; awake.^ ^^"^^ \To him- 
self— \ Such instigations have often been dropped where I 
have took [taken] them up. Shall Rome, &c. Thus must I 
piece it out ; shall Kome stand under one man's awe ? What I 
Eome ? " 

Lit. Def. The word, leader,'^ means one who leads. 

S03. Leaders [ ] are dotted lines, used to conned 

toords, at the heginning, with others at the end of the same lines. 

19. Punctuation page 154. 

Characters used at the ewe?, etc. ... ''155. 

"• '' " " hreaks .... " 156. 

Lit. Def. The word, caret^^ means it wants. 

^ Brace, e, like that which ; hrac^ an arm, a branch. See embrace^ brackets, 

^ Leader, er, ; lead, . 

s Caret, et^ that which ; car^ wants. 



166 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE, 

304:. The Caret [ a ] ^^ used^ in manuscripts to show the 
place of omitted words or letters. 
r to^ 

20. c/ wite this note you, 

30d». Fourth, The Characters, used for reference^ are 
the Emphasis- Marks ^ the Division- Marks ^ and what are 
usually called the Reference-Marks, 

306. The Emphasis -ifar^5 are the Hand or Index 

[m^^j, z^Ae Asterisks or Stars [V], and ^Ae Nota Bene 
[N.B.].' Tliey are used to direct^ or to refer the reader to some 
special paragraphs. 

Note IX. The term, Emphasis^ as here used, is improperly applied. 
These signs have nothing to do with emphatic words, as described in 
the Syntax of Sentences. 

1. U^^ For sale, at a Bargain — All my real estate. 

2. ^^^ '' A retired clergyman, whose sands of life have 
nearly run out." 

307. The DiYisiON- Ifar^ are the Paragraph [T], and 

the Section [§]. They enable us to refer to different parts of a 
hook. Formerly^ hoth were used much more than at present. 

Lit. Def. The word, paragraph,^ means written or painted along- 
side. 

Lit. Def. The word, section,^ means the condition of that which has 

teen cut off. 

Note X. The term, Paragraph, was applied to a title, placed in the 
margin to distinguish paragraphs, before they were written separately, 
as now. 

3. " ^ Avoid all needless repetitions of the same Repetition, 
thing in different parts of the discourse. % Avoid all need- 
less prolixity in one part to the neglect, or too rapid Prolixity. 
disposal of, perhaps, more important parts. ^ Avoid Multi- 
plying explications where there is no difficulty, nor ■^^^" 
darkness, nor danger of mistake." 

1 Pakageaph. graph = script^ painted, drawn; para, with, alongside. 
^ Section. Hon. ; eeo. has been cut off. 



PUNCTIJATIOIT. 167 

Note XI. The Section includes one, or more paragraphs, when they 
pertain to the same part. The Sections in this work are shown by the 
'bold-faced figures, 1, 2, 3, etc. ; the examples and remarks are the 
paragraphs. 

Lit. Def. The word, refer ence^^ means the office of thai which carries 
lack. 

208. The EEFERENCE-i^ar^5 are used to refer the reader to 
a note in the side^ or at the foot of a page. 

309. Eeference Marks are divided into Superior- 

Marks, and /7?/mc>r-Marks. 

Lit. Def. The word, superior ^'^ means higher. 

210. The SuPERiOR-ilfar^5 are placed with the word con- 
cerning which the reference is made. They are either the letters^ 
a, b, c, d, etc.^ or the figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.^ placed at the end^ 
and near the upper part of the word. 

Lit. Def. The word, inferior,^ means belonging to that which is car- 
ried below. 

211. The l:NFEiiiO'R- Marks are placed at the left of the 
notes to vjhich the reference is made. They are the same as the 
l^terSj or figures, used as Superiors. 

Note XII. When only a few notes are given, we use the following 
six signs in the order, in which they are here given ; — 



1. Asterisk, or Star * 

2. Obehsk, or Dagger f 

3. Double Dagger j^ 



4. Section § 

5. ParaUel || 

6. Paragraph ^ 



Note XIII. When more than six references are required, some 
double or treble those given above ; as, **, f f f , etc. 

212. Fifth. The FunGtMSiiions, used in pronunciatiorij 
are the J.ccen^Marks, the Quantity-MsuhSj the Diceresisj 
and the Cedilla. 

Lit. Def. The word, accentj^ means that which raises. 

1 Eepeeence. ence^ office of that which ; fer = lat^ takes, carries ; re, back, 
again. 

^Sfperioe. ior = 6r, (comparative degree of adjective) ; super^ high, above; 
hence, superior = higher. 

3 Inferior, ior^ ; fer = lat, ; in^ below, among. 

* Accent, a, ; cen, raises, kindles ; ac = ad, up. 



168 THE KHETOEIC OF LAXaUAGE. 

313. The A-OCKi^T- Marks are used to show that a peculiar 
force or stress of the voice is to le given to the syllables over 
which they are jplaced, 

iN'oTE I, Accent is, to the syllable in a word, what Emphasis is 
to a word in a sentence. 

214. Accent-Marks are of three kinds ; the Acute^ 
tlie Grave^ and the Circumflex, 

Lit. Def. The word, acute,- means sharp. 

215. The Acute Accent ['] denotes a rising inflection of 

the voice. 

As, an'archj, antip'athy, anticipa'tion. 

Note II. The Acute Accent, at the end of a clause, shows that the 
voice rises. 

4. See, who comes here' ? My countryman' — but yet I 
know him not'. Horatio, or I do forget myself. 

Lit. Def. The word, graved means tieavy^ low. 

316. The Graye Accent [^] denotes the falling inflection. 

As, An'archj^ antip'athyV 

5. On Linden, when the sun was low\ ^ 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow\ 

And dark as winter was the flow 
Of Iser rolling rapidly\ 

Note III, The G-rave Accent is sometimes placed over e, in the suf- 
fix of an adjunct word, to show that it must be pronounced ; as, — 

6. Beloved, these things write I to you. 

Lit. Def. The word, circumflex,^ means lending around. 

317. The Circumflex Accent [^ or " ] denotes an upward^ 
followed hy a downward inflection of the voice. 

■« AoiTTE. 6, ; ^, ; <xcw, sharp, pointed. 

2 G-RAVE. e, ; grav, heavy, low. 

. 3 CiRcuiTFLEx. flex =Jl6Ct^ that which has been bent, turned ; circum ^peri 
aronnd. 



PUNCTUATION. 169 

7. Eternity J thou pleasing^ dreadful thought. 

Note IY. Sometimes the circumflex is used to distinguish a pecu- 
liar sound of the vowel, over which it is placed ; as in fall, full, etc. 

Note Y. The accent is sometimes used to distinguish words having 
like parts ; as, — 

8. The indorser, either (izrectly, or ^7^cZ^rectly, shall pay to 
the indorsee. This is so far from being mjustice, that it is 
real justice. 

Lit. Def. The word, quantity ^'^xn.Qs^n^ hoiumuch of existence or being ^ 
how many. 

218. Quantity Marks are of tjiree kinds; the Long 
or Macron^ tlie Short or Breve^ and the DouhtfuL 
Lit. Def. The word, macron^ means long. 

S19. The Long Ifar,^ or Macron [-] is placed over a 
long vowel. 

As, in the words, fdte^ me, pine, no, tube. 

Lit. Def. The word, breve^ means short (See brief, brevity.) 

220. The Short Marh or Breye [''] is placed over a short 
voioel. 

As, in the words, fat, met, pin, not, tub. 

Lit. Def. The word, doubtful,'^ means like that which is double. 

221. The Doubtful Marh [^] is placed over a vowel, 
which may he long^ or short. 

As, in the words, wmd, demonstrate, etc. 

Lit. Def. The word, dioeresis,'^ means taking apart. 

222. The DiJERESis [••] is placed over the latter of two 
adjoining vowels^ to show that it does not form a diphthong with 
the former. 

As, in the words, aerial, zoology^ etc. 



1 QUANTITY. Uty^ belonging to that wMch ; n, being, thing; qua^ how much, 
how many, which, or what. See Dictionary, entity, entire, unit, one, whole, a or 
an, any, many, etc. 

2 DoiniTFUL. ful= ly=ive, like, having the property of; (b)t, that which [is] ; 
dou, double. 

3 Diuresis. {e)8is, ; (Br = air, takes; di = dis, apart, between. 



^ 



170 THE RHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Lit. Def. The word, ce-diV-la, means belonging to that which softens* 

2S3. The Cedilla [?] is a mark used in French luords 
under the letter^ c, hefore A, or o, to give it the sound of s. 

As in the word, fagoAe^ pronounced fas-dele] macon^ pronounced 
masm, 

N.B. — Shoidd the teacher desire to exercise the class in Punc- 
tuation^ let some one read a 'passage aloud^ to he written and 
punctuated hy the student ; then, let these exercises he examined 
very carefully and the necessary comments he made. Do not as- 
sume tliat cdl the punctuations, found, in the hooks, are correct. 
Indeed, no supposition could he more cdosurd than this ; since^ the 
most of writers leave the Punctuation to the ^' compositor, ^^ as the 
type-setter is technically ccdled. Therefore, ivhatever hook is used, 
examine it, as to its p)unctucdion, as luell as the exercises of the 
students. 

Many doubtful cases will, of course, be found. In these cases, the 
Punctuation must be a matter of taste. 

The teacher should he provided with a copy of '"'' Wilson^ s 
Treatise on Punctuation,''^ which, in our judgment, is the hesi 
work on this suhject, yet puhlished. 



Exercises ix Punctuation. 
Let the student copy, and punctuate the following examples. 

1. I am monarch of all I survey my right there is none to 
dispute from the center all round to the sea I am lord of the 
fowl and the brute solitude where are the charms that sages 
have seen in thy face 'tis better to dwell in the midst of alarms 
than to reign in this horrible place 

2. The Lord is my shepherd I shall not want he maketh me 
to lie down in green pastures he leadeth me beside the still 
waters he restoreth my soul he leadeth me in the paths of 
righteousness for his names sake yea though I walk through 
the valley of the shadow of death I will fear no evil for thou 
art with me thy rod and thy staff they comfort me thou pre- 
parest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies 



PUKCTUATIOlSr. 171 

thou anointest my head with oil my cup runneth over surely 
goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life 
and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. 

3. The earth is the Lords and the fulness thereof the world 
and they that dwell therein for he hath founded it upon the 
seas and established it upon the floods who shall ascend into 
the hill of the Lord or who shall stand in his holy place he 
that hath clean hands and a pure heart who hath not lifted up 
his soul unto vanity nor sv/orn deceitfully he shall receive the 
blessing from the Lord and righteousness from the God of his 
salvation this is the generation of them that seek him that 
seek thy face Jacob selah lift up your heads ye gates and 
be ye lifted up ye everlasting doors and the King of glory 
shall come in who is this King of glory the Lord strong and 
mighty the Lord mighty in battle lift up your heads ye gates 
even lift them up ye everlasting doors and the King of glory 
shall come in who is this King of glory the Lord of hosts he is 
the Eling of glory selah. 

Erroneous Punctuation^ to he corrected. 

L On Linden when, the sun was low all trackless lay, the 
untrodden snow and dark, as winter was, the flow ; of Iser, 
rolling rapidly ? 

2. The harp, the monarch, minstrel swept; the king of men 
the loved of Heaven that music hallowed : while she wept, 
o'er tones her heart of hearts had given ! Kedoubled be, her 
tears its cords, are riven. 

3. Was it not? pitiful near a whole city full, of homes she 
had none ; 

4. Miss Jone's compliments to the Misses Brown ; requests 
the Misses Brown's company this evening, to tea ! 

5. The raven (never flitting) still; is sitting still; [is 
sitting on] ; the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber 
door, — — . 



172 THE EHETORIC OF LANGUAGE. 

Wo^itten Analyses or Formulas. 

!N"OTE. Students should now practise Written Analyses. This may 
be done in a variety of ways, as follows; — 

First TTrite a paragraph, or use one that is printed, and that may 
be marked with a pen, or pencil, and through the middle of each word, 
expressing an idea in the first part of the thought, draw one horizontal 
line; through the middle of each word, expressing an idea in the 
second part, draw two horizontal lines ; and, through the middle of each 
word, expressing an idea in the third part of the thought, draw tJiree 
horizontal lines. These lines represent the thought expressed in the 
sentence. 

Stcond. At the right of the Subject, Predicate, etc., use superiors, 
as follows; — 

With a word Subject, use the superior, ^ Over a phrase, or a 
clause Subject, draw a line ending at the superior, ^ 

With a word Predicate, use the superior, % Over a phrase Predi- 
cate, draw a line ending at the superior, ^. 

With a word Pirst Object, use the superior, ^. 

With a phrase, and a clause Pirst Object, use the line w^ith the su- 
perior, 2. 

Examples. 

1. Men^ live^ Men^ build^ houses^ 

2. The Star- Spangled Banner^ was sung^ Men^ heard^ 



The Star-Spangled Banner , 

With a Pelator, use the superior, ^. 

With a word Second Object, use the superior, ^. 

Over a phrase, and a clause Second Object, draw a line, ending in 
the superior, ^. 

With a word Adjunct, use the superior, ^. 

With a phrase, and a clause Adjunct, use the line with the su- 
perior, ^. 



3. Houses^ are built^ by* men^ 

4. Some® men^ do^ not® build^ very® good® houses^ 

With a Personator of a word subject, use the superior, ''^ ; of a phrase, 
or a clause Subject, '^-\ or, '^^p, '^^'^ ; of a word Pirst Object, '^^ ; of a 
phrase, or a clause Pirst Object, '^~2, or ''^p ''^°. 

Por Personators of Second Objects, "^^ ; "^"^^ or '^^p, '^°°. 

Por Personators of Adjuncts, "^^ ; "^"^^ or ''^p, '^^^. 



ANALYSIS. 



173 



•gSnojaSnup 




5 c^ 



't o 




+3 o -^ 







rJ=i 




II 






^ 






CU 






c ^ 


% 


^^ 


^a> 


^2;=? 


a; 




riiii'c' 






-H 


'^ 


rO i^ 




o^ 






>i 



tf B 



174 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

5. He" called^ her^^ bis^« daughter^ 

6. It'-' is' good' for' us'' to' be' here'. ' It"« is good 
for us to be here. 

With an Exclamative, use ^; "" ^ ^p, ®°. 
With a Connector, use ^. 

7. There' is' Strong' reasonHo'suspectHhat^ some' able'Whig' 
politicians/ who^ thought' it'' dangerous' to' relax,' at' that' 
moment,^ the' laws^ against' political' offenses^, but^ who' could' 
not,' without' incurring' the' charge^ of inconsistency,' declare^ 
themselves'' adverse' to' relaxation,^ had conceived' a' hope^ 
that^ they" might,' by' fomenting' the' dispute^ about' the' 
court' of the' lord' high' steward,' defer' for' at' least' a' year^ 
the' passing^ of a' bill' which' they" disliked,' and^ yet' could^ 
not' decently' oppose.' 

8. What light and air are to the silent vegetable world, 
that is language to the human race. In it, it breathes forth 
its pleasures and sorrows, and only in moments of the highest 
pleasure and deepest sorrow is expression wanting to human 
lips. 

What color, or still coarser materials, are to the artist, that 
are winged words to the poet. Dippolt. 

9. Language is the mode of expression of the reason, by 
which alone it assumes a tangible form, and can be com- 
municated. Herder. 

10. I steal by lawns and grassy plots, 
I slide by hazel covers ; 
I move the sweet forget-me-nots 
That grow for happy lovers. 

And out again I curve and flow, 

To join the brimming river ; 
For men may come and men may go, 

But I go on for ever. 



EXAMPLES. 175 



Examples for Exercise and Analysis. 

1. The true writing, of which writing by the letters of the 
alphabet is only a shadow — is, vivid, living speech. Plato. 

2. We cannot express in words the thousandth part of that 
which we actually think, but only a few points of the rapid 
stream of thought, from the crest of its highest waves, for the 
operation of thinking is wonderfully rapid in movement, com- 
parable to no material motion. As the earthly body in many 
respects cripples and fetters the spirit, in like manner, lan- 
guage is only a wearisome, difficult and imperfect means of 
setting forth its rapid movements. 

But the natural difficulty of speaking is an excellent coun- 
terbalance to the rapid activity of mind, for the latter is thus 
obliged to consider each object more closely and longer, and 
thus obtains a fuller knowledge of it, and becomes itself more 
intelligent in its action. 

Although, therefore, thought is possible without language, 
as we see in the case of deaf and dumb persons not otherwise 
deficient, and of young children, and although thought is not 
the result of words, but words of thought, still, language ren- 
ders our ideas more various, clear, vivid and definite. Lan- 
guage is moreover the medium of the reciprocal communica- 
tion and expansion of our ideas and our knowledge. 

Thus arises the duty of using much effort to perfect our- 
selves in language ; in part that we may be better able to 
hold intercourse with other minds, and in part for the sake of 
greater intelligibility to ourselves. He who can think clearly, 
will be able to express himself clearly, and vice versa, he 
who can make himself understood b}^ others, shows that he, 
himself, thinks and comprehends clearly. Zschokke. 

3. If any one should propose to us the question, how can 
our perceptions by our eyes, and by all our other senses, not 
only be embodied in sounds, but so communicated by them, 
that they shall express thoughts and call up thoughts ? no 
doubt this problem would be taken to be the notion of an 
insane mind, substituting the most dissimilar things for eacli 
other ; color for sounds, sounds for thoughts, and thoughts for 
a sound that cannot represent. 

But God has in fact solved this problem. A breath of our 
mouth becomes a picture of the world, and the t3^pe in another 
soul of our thoughts and feelings. Upon the motion of a 



176 THE EHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 

breath of air depends all that man has ever thought, or willed 
or done, or will do, for we should all yet be wandering in the 
woods, had not this divine breath breathed upon us, and 
passed over our lips like a magic sound. 

The whole history of humanity, with all the treasures of its 
traditions and its culture, is nothing but a result of this 
divinely solved riddle. Where would be the use of all oui 
instruments, our brain, our senses, our hands, our erect atti 
tude, unless the Creator had given us a moving spring to set 
them all in action — the divine gift of speech ? Herder, 

4. Knowledge is two-fold ; of words and of things, but he 
who has no knowledge of things, will not be helped by having 
a knowledge of w^ords. 

There is an old proverb which says, ^' What one does not 
comprehend well, of that he cannot talk well." Our own 
times have furnished abundant instances of this, for very 
many learned and eloquent persons have put forth things 
utterly foolish and ridiculous, by reason of having undertaken 
to treat of what they do not understand. One who is really 
master of his subject will teach well, and will reach the heart, 
although he may be homely and unready of speech. 

The understanding of words, or of the grammar, will be 
easy, if the knowledge of the things is thorough, but where 
the knowledge of these things is not present, a knowledge of 
words is useless. Luther. 

5. The gift of speech to the human race derives its per- 
manent value from letters, or, to use equivalent terms, spoken 
language derives its permanent value from written language. 

Summon to your memory some tribe of men gifted like others 
with reason and speech, but without the aid of letters. How- . 
ever correct and bright their thoughts may be, however strong 
and graceful their emotions, however distinct and eloquent 
their expression, they must all die with the individual, or be 
but faintly transmitted to the future, and they become Ihe 
seed corn in the minds of the next generation, to bear a 
glorious harvest of new thoughts and new emotions, or, at 
least, a profitable harvest in the application of knowledge to 
those arts of life, vrhich mmister to human improvement. 
Foivler. 

6 Man's organs of speech are the rudder of his reason, 
and speech is a heavenly spark, which kindles into a tiame 
our senses and our thouo;hts. 



EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE. 177 

A people has no idea for which it has no word. The most 
vivid intuition must remain a dim feeling until the soul ap- 
prehends some characteristic of the object, and by means of a 
word preserves it in the memory, the recollection, the under- 
standing, and tradition. 

Onlj language has made man human, by inclosing as by a 
dam, the monstrous flood of his passions. 

Language is the great companion of man. By it men com- 
bine, greet each other, and conclude a loving alliance. What- 
ever the human mind has ever conceived, what the wise men 
of the past have thought, comes to me by speech alone. By 
it, my thinking soul is connected with that of the first man, 
and perhaps with the last. Herder. 

"As a sign of thought it must be admitted that language 
is imperfect, for hardly an}^ abstract term has precisely the 
same' meaning in any two minds; when mentioned, the same 
term calls up different associations in one mind from what it 
does in another. But while men differ in the meaning which 
they attach to certain classes of terms and of constructions, 
they also, when they have carefully studied a language, 
largely agree; so largely, that they can make their agreement 
the sure basis of reasoning and of acting on important sub- 
Jects." 

Concerning speech and words, the consideration of them 
hath produced the science of grammar, for man still striveth 
to reintegrate himself in those benedictions from which by his 
fault he hath been deprived ; and as he hath striven against 
the first general curse by the invention of all other arts, so 
hath he sought to come forth of the second general curse, 
which was the confusion of tongues, by the art of grammar; 
whereof the use in a mother tongue is small, in a foreign 
tongue more ; but most in such foreign tongues as have 
ceased to be vulgar tongues, and are turned only to learned 
tongues. The duty of it is of two natures ; the one popular, 
which is for the speedy and perfect attaining languages, as 
well for intercourse of speech as for understanding of authors ; 
the other, philosophical, examining the power and nature of 
words, as they are the footsteps and prints of reason ; which 
kind of analogy between words and reason is handled sparsim^ 
brokenly, though not entirely, and therefore, I cannot report 
it deficient, though I think it very worthy to be reduced into 
a science by itself Bacon. 

8* 



178 



SUBJECTIVE OUTLINE OF GRAMMAE. 



P 



W 


o 

W 

o 

C5 



o 



H ,- w 



CQ 




CHAP. lY., GRAMMAR. 179 



CHAPTER ly. 

The Grammatical Use of Thought Language or 
Grammar. 



iThe word, grammar ^'^ means belonging to 
elements, sands. 
In the Grammatical Use of Thought 
Language^ we consider mainly the language itself as it exists in 
its W or d' elements : First, the Grammatical Classification of 
these Word- elements with the Attributes, and Syntax of each 
class ; Second, how these Word-elements should he spoken^ and 
how they should he written. 

Note I. In the Logical Use, we mainly consider the Thought ; and, 
in the Rhetorical Use, the Thought and Language in their mutual rela- 
tions ; in the G-rammatical Use, we mainly consider the Language 
itself. (Chap. L, '71.) 

S. Nomenclature. The Names or Terms, having 
a ge-neral use in Grammar, are Attributes or Properties 
of a Word^ Formation of a Word, Form of a Word^ 
Modifications of a Word, Table, Begular^ Irregular, De- 
fective, Redundant.^ Variable., Syntax of Words., Gram- 
raatical Analysis or Parsing, 

Note II. For convenience, we shall sometimes, in G-rammar, call the 
meaning of an expression, whether it be a word, a phrase, or a sen- 
tence, the Ideal of that expression. Such terms as Ideatic, or Ideistic, 
if they were found in the dictionaries, would be better. 

1 Grammar. {m)ar, that which; gram, grain, letters, sand. See Diet., grarrti'it^ 
ffrain^ literal^ littoral; also, Chap. lY., Letters. 



180 THE GRAMMAR OF, LANGUAGE. 

Attrihutes or Proj^erties of a Word, 

Lit. Def. The word, attribute,^ means that which has leen given to 
[anything]. 

The word, pro2:)erty,^ means something that is real, peculiar. 

3. The Attributes or Properties of the different Gram- 
onaticcd Classes of words are given to each Class on account of 
its Logical^ its Rhetorical^ and its Graraniatical uses. 

4. The Logical Attrihutes of a word helong to it on account 
of its meaning or the ideal which it names. 

^. The Khetorical attrihutes of a loord helong to it on 
account of its rhetorical use or office. 

6. The Grammatical attrihutes of a word helong to it either 
on account of its grammatical class, or on account of the mode 
in ivhich it is spoken, or written. 

Formation of a Y/ord. 

Lit. Def. The word, formation,^ means the office of that which shapes 
or tuilds. 

y. The Formation of a Word is a phrase naming the act 
of pjidting the elements of a word together. 

Thus, if word-elements be used, the result is either a Simple, or a 
Componnd word ; if syUabic-elements, the result is either a Monosyl- 
lable, or a PolysyUable ; if sounds, the result is either a Monophonic, 
or a Polyphonic; if letters, the result is either a Monogram, or a Poly- 
gram. 

Form of a Word, 

8. The Form OF a Word is a phrase naming the effect 

caused hy the formation of the word. 

Thus, a word, as to its form, may be Simple, or Compound ; Mono- 
syllable, or PolysyUable; Monophonic, or Polyphonic; Monogram, or 
Polygram. 

Modifications of a Word. 

Lit. Def. The word, modification^'^ means both the science and art 
of making forms ; and, also, that hy ivhich a form has been made or 
changed. 

' Attkibute. e, belonging to ; t, — — ; tribu^has been given ; at^ ad, to [some- 
tbing.] 

2 Property. y=e, ; i, ; proper, pecnlmr, real. 

3 FoRMATiox. ion^ office of, being: {iL)t, that wbich; form, creates, bnilds. 

"* MoDTFiCATTON. atio^i, ; {i)fic^ has been made ; 'mod, mode, form, figiire. 



MODIFICATIONS OF WOKDS. 181 

O. The terin^ Modification, is applied to the weans ly 
which the form of a ivord has been made, or changed. 

10. Modifications are classified in two y^^d^j^] first ^ 
according to use ; second^ according to the parts modified, 

11. According to use^ Modifications of Words are 
divided into the Logical., and the Rhetorical or Euphonic. 

13. A Logical Modification is one which causes a chanye 
m the meaning of a word. 

Thus, in the words, part, port; part means that luhich equals ; while, 
the word, port, means that which hears, carries ; the difference in mean- 
ing being caused by logical modification between the letters, a, o. See 
impart, import, depart, deport, etc. 

13. A Rhetorical or Euphonic Modification is one 
which is made on account of euphony. (See Chap. III., 
Euphony.^ 

14. According to ihe parts modified., Modifications of 
Words are divided into three kinds ; Root., Suffix., and 
Prefix Modifications. 

15. Root Modifications are those lohich affect the form of 
the root. 

1 G. -A Suffix Modification is made by using a suffix with 
the root. 

17. ^ Prefix Modification is made hy using a prefix icith 
the root. 

Note III. In written, or printed language, the suffix is sometimes 
separated from its root ; as, my own for myown. 

Note IY. The English language is remarkable, because it is so free 
from many of those Modifications of words which are found in other 
languages, and are used merely to show the attributes or properties of 
words; hence, by many it is called an Anomalous Language; by a few, 
a Grammarless Language. A careful study of the grammatical attri- 
butes or properties of its words and the means by which these are 
made known, reveals the gratifying facts; first, that the English lan- 
guage has aU the Modifications really needful to show the attributes or 
properties of its words and, perhaps, a few more than are needed 
by thinkers; second, it also shows that the prevailing idea of the 



182 THE aRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

English language is. that the attributes or properties of words shah 
be shown by the meanings of the words and 07 their positions in 
sentences, rather than by the Modifications of the words themselves. 
"Whoever studies the English language carefully, must be convinced 
that it is, preeminently, the language of the thinker and that, in this 
respect, it is most admirably adapted to become " The Universal Lan- 
guages''^ a mission which it seems destined to fulfil. It is, indeed, in 
its Grammar, the most philosophical language, w^hich is spoken by the 
human lip, or written by the human hand. 

Table of a Word. 

Lit. Def. The word, talle^'^ means something arranged, classed. 

I 8. Table is a term apjplied to an arrangement^ showing 
the different modifications of a word^ of a ]^hrase^ or of a sen- 
tence. 

Regular Words. 
Lit. Def. The word, regular,"^ means according to some rule. 

19. A REauLAR Word is one which is used according to 
some general rule^ or table. 

Irregular Words. 

20. An iRREauLAR Vs^ord is one which is not u^ed accord 
ing to some general rule^ or table. 

Defective Words. 

Lit. Def. The word, defective^^ means like that vjhich has been taken 
away. 

21. A Defective Word is one which lacks some of the 
attributes belonging to other words of its own kind or class. 

Redundant Words. 
Lit. Def. The word, redundant,^ means that vjhich flows bach. 

22. A Reduxdant Word is one luhich has two or more 

1 Table, e, something ; to&^, class, rank, order. ^QQT>icX., tabulate. 

2 Regular, ar, use, office ; ul = al, belonging to, some ; reg. rule, law, order ; 
ir, not. 

8 Defective, tive. ; fee =-Jic., has been taken ; de, from. 

4 Eeduxdajs't. atit., something, belonging to ; {d)v/nd^ flows, waves ; /'€, back, 
again. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF GRAMMAR, 183 

modifications to show the same attributes; or^ that has two 07 
more meanings. 

Note V. A word, which has two or more forms, is said to be Re- 
dundant in Form; a word, having two or more meanings, is said to be 
Redundant in Meaning. 

Thus, plienomenons^ ■plienorrvena^ are redundant forms of phenomenon. 
Brothers (members of the same family), and brethren (members of the 
same society), are redundant both in form and in meaning. 

Variable TVords. 
Lit. Def. The word, variable,^ means capable of changes. 

33. A Yaeiable Word is one which is sometimes used in 
one form or meaning^ and sometimes in another form or mean- 
ing^ or in both. 

Syntax of Words. 

24. Grammatical Syntax is a term applied to those Rules^ 
which are used ; first, in determining the position or places of words 
in sentences ; second, in determining the attributes or properties 
and the means of showing these attributes or properties^ as they 
are used in Grammar. 

Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. 

Lit. Def. The word, parsing ^^ means the action of one who separates 
or analyzes. 

25. Grammatical Analysis or Parsing is the act of find- 
ing the grammatical elements of a word^ a phrase^ a clause^ or a 
sentence. 

26. Classifications. The Grammatical Use of 
Thought Language may be considered, first^ as to the 
Narrator'' s Use of it ; second^ as to the Narrateeh Use 
of it. 

27. The Narrator's Grammatical use of thought lamjuage 
is synthetic ; because^ he must give to each word^ phrase^ or sen- 

1 Variable. {ia)ble, may, can ; var^ changes, turn. 

s Parsing, ing, ; s= t, ; par^ weighs up, makes equal. See Arith. 

Par, Above Par, Below Par, etc 



184 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGK 

tence^ some means of showing to the Narratee^ its logical^ its 
rhetorical^ and its grammatical attrihutes or properties^ ivhenever 
it is necessary that these should be made known. He must^ also^ 
speak or write each expression correctly. 

Note YI. First Since that, which we have learned, must consist of 
ideas, of groups of ideas, or of thoughts ; and, since the science and 
art of these is called Logic^ it follows that the narrator must commence 
as a logician ; because, he must have knowledge before he can communi- 
cate knowledge. 

Second. Since the science and art of expressing or naming an ideal 
is called Rhetoric^ it follows that the Narrator must be a rhetorician ; 
because, in order to communicate a thought, he must express or name 
the thought. 

Third. Since the division of words into grammatical classes, and the 
means of showing what belongs to the words of each grammatical class, 
is called Gramma/r, it follows that the Narrator must be a grammarian, 

28. TAe JSTarratee's Grammatical use of thought language 
is analytic ; because, he must take each expression as it comes from 
the Narrator, and,' by the aid of its syntax and modifications^ 
find its grammatical, its rhetorical, and its logical uses ; and, also, 
must learn to hear and to read the language correctly. This re- 
quires a knowledge of the two parts of Grammar ; of which 
the first is called Etymology ; the second, Orthoepy and Or- 
thography. 

Note YII. First Since the syntax of words in a sentence and their 
modifications belong to Grammar, it follows that the Narratee must 
begin as a grammarian. 

Second. Since the grammatical use of a word enables us to find its 
rhetorical use or office, it follows that the Narratee must be a rheto- 
rician. 

Third. Since the use of an expression, as the means of finding 
thoughts, belongs to Logic, it follows that the Narratee must be a lo- 
gician. Hence, by comparing this with the previous Note, we see 
that; — 

The Narrator onust he a logician, a rhetorician, and a grammarian ; 
and that ; — 

Tlie Narratee must he a grammarian, a rhetorician, and a logician. 



GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 185 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Lit. De?. The word, etym,ology,^ mesins, belonging to the science and 
art of the origin, or source [of things^. 

39. The term. Etymology, is the name for that part of 
Grammar which includes ; first, ^Ae Grammatical Classification 
of Words ; second,. ^Ae Attributes or Properties, and the Means 
hy which these are known ; and third, the Syntax of each Gram- 
matical Class. 

The Grammatical Classification of Words. 

3©. The Grammatical Classification of Words is 
based upon the uses or offices of words in sentences. 
According to which, Words are divided into eight 
classes or kinds, called The Parts of Speech ; namely, 
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Preposi- 
tions, Conjunctions, and Exclamations, 

Note I. Some grammarians have nine^ while others have ten 
" Parts of Speech." The ninth class is formed by calling the two ad- 
junct words, a or an^ and the^ Articles. The tenth "Part of Speech" 
is formed by calling the different Tenses of the Participal Mode, Par- 
ticiples. 

According to this mode of forming classes, an almost indefinite 
number of "Parts of Speech " might be formed. 

Note II. Ehetorically, words have eight^ uses or offices in , sen- 
tences ; hence, according to the classification, given above, eight gram- 
matical kinds or classes of words must be the result, and we have the 
following ; — 

Comparative Table. 

Ehetorical use or office. Grammatical Classes. 

j_ SSuijects Objects, ^A Adjuncts re- l^ ^ 

I lated by of^ or by an apostrophe, ) 

Pronouns. 

Adjectives, 

Yerbs. 

Adverbs. 

Prepositions. 

Conjunctions. 

Exclamations, 



lated by of, or by an apostrophe, j 

II. Personators 

III. Adjuncts of Nouns . . 

lY. Predicates or Affirmers 

Y. Adjuncts, not belonging to Nouns .... 

YI. Relators 

YII. Connectors 

YIII. Exclamatives 



1 Etymology, y = e, ; {o)log^ science, reason ; etym, origin, source, truth. 

2 This statement supposes First and Second Objects to be included in the one 
term, Objects. 



186 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 





2 5 5^ "S c ^ 



M^ 



NOUNS. — DEFINITIONS. 187 

I. Nonns. 

31. The science of the Noun includes; first^ the 
Definitions ; second^ the Classifications ; third^ the Attri- 
butes or Properties, and the Means of making them 
known ; fourth^ the Declension ; and fifths the Syntax 
of the Noun. 

!The word, noun,^ means 
nam.es, power, force. 
A Noun is a word^ a 
'plirase, or a clause^ which^ in a sentence^ has the use or office of 
a SUBJECT, of an object, or of an adjunct, related to its 
principal ly OF, or hy an apostrophe. 

Note I. Some grammarians classify as Nouns, adjuncts related to 
Nouns by a relator; while, they classify as Adjectives, the same ad- 
juncts having the same principal word, where the relator is not used. 

Thus, the word, mountain, after the relator, of, in the following, is 
caUed a Noun; in its other uses, an Adjective. 

There is the top of a mountain, or a mountain's top, or a mountaivi- 
top, or a mountain top ; in which the words, mountain, mountain's have 
the same meaning, and the same rhetorical use. 

Students, who prefer not to classify adjuncts as Nouns, should omit 
that part of the definition which follows the word, " object.'' These 
will have no occasion for a Possessive, and very httle for a G-enitive 
Case. 

Examples. 

1 . The father gave the land to his son^ but the son^s part 
of the land was less than his father's. 

General Analysis. FST + FS + Fs. 

Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. Father is a noun ; because, it is 
a word, which has the use or office of a subject, in the sentence, fhefatli&r 
gave, etc. 

Land is a noun ; because, it is a word, which has the use or office of 
an object. It is the first object of the predicate, gave. 

1 Noun, un, existence, one who ; no, know, directs, commands. The word, 
noun, contains an ancient root, which is found in many languages. Among its first 
forms is gjio; hence, our root, k7io (know). Among its later forms is no (noted). 
In the Greek language, it appears in the word, onoma (name) ; in the Latin, in the 
word, nomen (name)'; in the English, in the word, noim (name). See nominal., 
nominate^ nomenclature. 



188 THE GRAMMAE OF LANGUAGE. 

Son is a word noun; because, it has the use or office of an object 
It is a second objectjof the predicate, gave. 

Son^s is a word noun ; because, it has the use or office of an adjunct. 
Its relation to its principal, land., is shown by an apostrophe. 

Part is a word noun 

Land [of land] is a word noun; because, it has the use or office of 
an adjunct, whose relation to its principal, ;pa/rtj is shown by the re- 
lator, of. 

Father^ s [father's part of land] is a word noun; because, etc. 

2. '' The rose of Sharon " is a beautiful plant. 

Parsing. TJie rose of Sharon is a phrase noun; because, in this 
sentence it is a phrase, which has the use or office of a subject. 

3. Did you call this plant, " The rose of Sharon?'^ 

4. Do you know the tune of " Old Hundred?" 

Parsing. '• Old Hundred^^ is a phrase noun ; because it is an adjunct 
phrase, whose relation to its principal is shown by the relator, of. 

5.- The assembly shouted, ''The people are triumphant." 

Parsing. " Tlie people are triumphanf^ is a clause noun; because, in 
this sentence, it is a clause having the use or office of an object. 

Classifications of Nouns. 

33. Second^ ike Classifications. Nouns are clas- 
sified according to two bases ; first., according to their 
signification ; second., according to their uses or offices in 
sentences. 

34. First Classification. According to their signifi- 
cations^ Nonns are divided into two kinds ; Proper^ and 

Common, 

Proper Nouns. 

Lit. Def. The word, proper^ ^ means that which is real, peoulia/r. 

S5. A Proper Noun is a noun which distinguishes one or 
onore of a class from all others of the same class or kind. 

Examples. 
1. Schuyler was superseded by Gates in June. 

Parsing. Schuyler is a proper word Noun ; because, it distinguishes 
one individual from all others of the same class (men). 

1 Peopeb. er., thatwhicli [is]; prop., real, peculiar. 



COMMON NOUNS. 189 

2. The Alleghanies form a part of the Appalachian Sys- 
tem of mountains, 

3. The Americans are distinguished for enterprise. 

Note I. A Proper Noun, used to distinguish a member of a family, 
Is called the Given Name or the Christian Name. 

^. George Washington commanded the American armies. 

Parsing. George is a proper given or Christian name. It is a given 
or Christian name ; because, it distinguishes one Washington from all 
other Washingtons. 

5. Friday, the twenty-fifth day of December, was Christ- 
mas, and the next Friday, the first day of January, was New 
Year's day. Thanksgiving was on Thursday, and the Fourth 
(day) of July came on Sunday. 

6. Washington's birth-day was celebrated on Monday, Feb. 
22, 1858. The procession of citizen-soldiers passed through 
Broadway, Fourteenth Street, Fourth Avenue, Bowery, 
Chatham Street, and Park Row ; and was reviewed in the 
City Hall Park. 

Common Nouns. 

Lit. Def. The word, common^ ^ means belonging to many. 

36. A Common Noun is a noun which may he used to name 
the whole of a class or kind and^ also^ each individual of that 
class or hind. 

7. The pupils of this school recite in classes^ and each pup)il 
strives to become the best student in the class. 

Parsing. Pupil is a common word Noun. It is common^ because, 
it may be used to name the whole class (pupils) and, also, any individual 
in that class (pupil). 

8. Each orator^ hero^ and statesman of former times has been 
the type of our modern orators, heroes^ and statesmen. 

Note II. A Noun, signifying one's country or nation, is called a 
PatriaP Noun; signifying one's race, a Gentile^ or Generic^ Noun ; sig- 



1 Common. Tnon, many ; com =- con, too^ether, alike. 

2 Patrial. {i)aJ, belonging to; pair, father. 

' Gentile, ile, belonging to ; t, that which [has] ; gen, race. 
* Gkneric, ie, being, state, condition ; er = t, ; gen, — 



190 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

nifying one's parentage, a Patronymic^ ^own. or a Family name or a 
Surname? 

9. The Spaniards and the French are Celts ; the Germans 
are G-oths. 

Parsing. Spaniards is a patrial common Noun. It is pairial, be- 
cause it shows the country to which the people named belong. 

Celts is a generic common Noun. It is generic^ because it shows the 
race to which the people named belong. • 

10. The Washingtons do not form a numerous family in 

the United States. 

Parsing. Washingtons is a patronymic common Noun ; because, it 
shows parentage or family. 

Note III. Patrial, Patronymic, and Generic Nouns are to be con- 
sidered Proper Nouns, when they signify the whole class or kind dis- 
tinguished from others of the same species, or when they distinguish 
an individual from the class to which that individual belongs. 

11. An Englishman, a Scotchman, and an Irishman were 
discussing the common sense of their respective nationalities, 
when the Englishman suggested a test, to which the Scotchman 
and the Irishman readily assented. 

Note IY. Patrial and Patronymic Nouns become Common Nouns 
when they signify a part of the kind named, and, at the same time, 
may be applied to the other part. 

12. We meet Americans in England, Englishmen in Prance, 
Frenchmen in Turkey, Turks in Algiers, Algerines in Spain, 
and Spomiards in America. 

13. Edward, the Pretender, was a Stuart. 

Note Y. Instances sometimes occur, in which, it is difficult to dis- 
tinguish whether the noun is a Proper, or a Common Noun ; hence, it 
must be decided according to the judgment of the student. 

37. Second Classification of Nouns. According to 
their uses or offices in sentences, Nouns are divided into 
four kinds ; Subject ISTonns, Ohject Nouns, Adjunct 
Nouns, and Exclamative or Appellative Nouns. 

1 Patronymic, ic, ; onym^ name (see nov/ii) ; pair, . (See synonym 

nous.) 

'^ Surname, name., ; sur = super, over. 



OBJECT ISTOUKS. 191 

Subject Nouns. 

38. A Subject Noun is a word^ a phrase^ or a clause^ 
used as the suhject of a sentence. 

i^OTE I. In the examination of a Subject Noun, the student should 
notice whether it is the Subject Noun of an independent, or of a de- 
pendent sentence. G-enerallj, this fact should be stated. 

Examples. 

1. James sent a trusty messenger with the message. 

Parsing. James is a subject proper word Noun. It is a subject 
Noun, because, it is the subject of a sentence. 

2. The Star-spangled Banner was sung by all. 

Special Analysis. Tlie Star-spangled Banner is a subject common 
phrase Noun. It is a subject Noun, because it is used as the subject 
of a sentence. 

3. ^' Mind your business ^' \^ stamped in raised letters on 

T 

one side of this coin, t— =r S f. 

I D i 

Parsing. ^^ Mind your business,^'' is sl subject common clause Noun. 
It is a subject Noun, because, etc. 

4. " Travellers are invited to call here^^ was inscribed over 
the door. 

Object Nouns. 

39. An Object Noun is a word, a phrase^ or a clause^ used 
as an object of an affirmer, 

5. He giveth food to the poor. 

Parsing. Food is an object common word Noun. It is an object 
Noun, because it is used as an object in a sentence. 

Note II. Sometimes, Nouns should be distinguished as First Object 
Nouns, and as Second Object Nouns. Thus, in the previous example, 
food is a first object Noun ; poor is a second object Noun. 

6. The assembly sang '' The Sta/r- Spangled Banner.''^ 

Parsing. The Star-Spangled Banner is a first object Noun, because 
it is a phrase used as a first object in a sentence. 

7. We ended our musical entertainment with 'Add Lang 
Syne:' 



192 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Farsing. Auld Lang Syne is a second object common phrase Noun. 
It is a second object Noun, because it is a phrase used as a second object 
in a sentence. 

8. The passenger desired the, cajptain to stop the hoat. 

9. The daughter's affection for her father was shown by her 
providing for his comfort. 

Adjunct Nouns. 

4:0. An Adjunct Noun is an adjunct word^ phrase^ or 
clause. 

10. The mother'' s care of her daughter's happiness was em- 
ulated by the daughter in caring for the happiness of her 

mother. 

Parsing. Mother^ is an adjunct common word Noun. It is an ad- 
junct Noun, because it is a word, used in a sentence, as an adjunct. 

Daughter's is an adjunct Noun, because, etc. 

Happiness [of happiness] is an adjunct common word Noun. It is 
an adjunct Noun, because, etc. 

11. Who was the author of " The Star-spangled Banner f " 

Parsing. The Star-spangled Banner is an adjunct proper phrase 
Noun. It is an adjunct Noun, because it is a phrase, used in the sen- 
tence, as an adjunct of author^ to which its relation is shown by of. 

12. What are the chances of your hrother^s recovering his 
property ? 

Your brother's recovering Ms property is an adjunct common clause 
Noun. It is an adjunct Noun, because it is used as an adjunct of its 
principal word, chances. 

Excldmative or Appellative Nouns. 

Lit. Def. The word, appellative^'^ means like that which is touched. 

41. An ExcLAMATiYE or Appellative Noun is one which 
is used in a sentence either as an exclamative^ or as the name of 
a person addressed. 

13. Roger, come here, sir. 

Parsing. Roger is an appellative proper word Noun. It is an 
appellative Noun, because it is the name of the narratee. 

1 Appellative, ative. ; pelk touched, pushed ; ap = ad, at, against.- 



Noujsrs. 193 

14. "Would I had died for thee, Absalom, my Son I mj 

Son! 

Absalom is an exclamative proper word Noun. It is an exdamative 
Noun, because, etc. 

15. O Virtue! how amiable thou art. 

1 6. The wounded man exclaimed, " I am hurt I I am dying." 

17. A Daniel 1 A Daniel come to judgment! I thank 
thee, Jew, for teaching me that word. 

To the Student The following Notes are inserted, because they 
explain terms which are frequently used by the grammarians. Scien- 
tifically considered, they are absurdities. 

Note III. Nouns, naming things, which have a sensible existence 
or are material, are sometimes called Nouns Su'bstantive or Substantive 
Nouns, or simply Substantives. 

18. John struck the horse with a whip. 

John is a subject Noun; ho7'se and whip are object N*ouns, each 
naming an idea of a material thing or object ; hence, they are called 
su'bstantive Nouns or substantives. 

Note TV. Nouns, naming the qualities or properties of things, are 
sometimes called Nouns Adjective or Adjective Nouns. 

19. Neatness^ conciseness, and directness are the essentials of 
strength and clearness in style. 

Note Y. When'the cr^r???er only of a contracted sentence is used 
as a subject or as an object, it is sometimes called a Verbal Noun. If 
the affirmer end in ing, it is called a Participial Verbal Noun. 

20. To err, is human, to forgive] divine. 

21. Failing is oftener the result of doubting, than of attempt 
ing the performance of difficulties. 

Note YI. Adjective and Yerbal Nouns are called Abstract Nouns, 

22. Faith, hope, and charity are Christian graces. 

The Attributes of Properties of Nouns. 

42. Third, the Attributes of Nouns, and the Means 
of Knowing of them. JSTouns have four Attributes or 
Pj'operties ; called, Gender, Po'-son^ Numherj and Cdse, 



194 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Gender. 

Lit. Def. The word, gender ^'^ means mode of production^ origin^ 
source, 

43. Gender ^5 a logical attrihute or property^ which the 
noun derives from the presence or ahsence of sex in that which 
the noun names. 

i^OTE I. Probably the term, Gender, was originally applied to an 
idea subordinate to all principal ideas of material objects. This sub- 
ordinate idea is that every material thing belongs either to the Ani- 
mates, animals, plants, or to the Inanimates, minerals, etc. If it belong 
to the Animates, it must also belong either to the male sex, or to the 
female sex ; if to the Inanimates, it belongs to neither sex ; hence, 
that attribute or property of a Noun, by which it signifies the source 
or origin of its ideal, is very properly called the Gender of the Noun. 

Gender includes " distinction of sex," and more than this ; just as 
the origin jof all created objects includes more than the origin of any 
class of created objects ; so that the term, Geiider, has a larger signifi- 
cation than the term. Sex, which, literally, means cut, or divided, and 
should be used in Grammar as a name for the two sections or sexes, 
mole, female, into which Animate beings are naturally divided. 

44. Nouns have four kinds of Gender; namely, 
Masculine^ Feminine^ Common^ and Neuter. 

Lit. Def. The word, masculine,'^ means lielonging to a male. 

4:3. The Masculine Gender is attrihuted to nouns which 
are names of males. 

Lit. Def. The word, feminine,^ means belonging to a female. 

^46. The Feminine Gender is attrihuted to nouns lohich are 
names of females. 

Examples. 

1. That man and that woman may be a husland and his 
IV fe, a hrother and his sister, ^father and his daughter, an uncle 
and his niece, a neioheiu and his aunt, an actor and an actress^ 
a lord and a loxly, a duke and a duchess, or a heau and a lelle. 

' Gender. {d)er. office of, mode of; gen^ origin, production, race. See Diet., 
gew'^is. general, generation. 

'^ MAsrL'LiNE. iiie, belonging to ; dh, little, somewhat; mas^ male. 
3 TE^viiiNrxE. iwe, \feinin, female. 



GENDERS OF NOUKS. 195 

Crrammatical Analysis. Man is a subject common Noun. It has 
the logical attribute, masculine Gender; because, it names a male. 

Woman is a subject common Noun. It has the logical attribute, 
feminine Gender ; because, etc. 

4:7. The Common Gender is attributed to a nourij which 
names either a male, or a female^ or both. 

2. Your uncle and SijUnt iive cousins of mj parents. Their 

children are pupils in my school. 

Parsing. Cousins is a subject Noun. It has the attribute, common 
Gender ; because, it may be used as the name of males, or of females, 
or of both. 

Note II. Many, who object to a " Common Gender," use a " Neuter 
Gender," nevertheless; while others, with more consistency, reject 
both. " If," say the latter, ^'gender means sex, then only the names 
of males and females have gender." This error comes from using a 
false definition ; as, " Gender is sex." Gender is the attribute only, 
which relates to the presence and kind, or absence of sex in the thing 
named; hence, gender is a more comprehensive term than sex. Gen- 
der is an attribute of the names of all objects, whether animate or 
inanimate. In every language, there are certain words, which are to 
be used only as the names of males; others as tlie names of females; 
and others, which may be applied to either, or to both. Now, since these 
three distinctions are found in the use of words, it becomes absolutely 
essential for good scholarship, that the learner be taught to use words 
correctly in this respect. 

3. Husband and wife are a ^' married couple," or ^'partners 
for life ;" father and mother are parents ; sons and daughters 
are children ; brothers and sisters are kindred ; and all may 
constitute a family and be relatives. 

Lit. Def. The word, neuter^ means neither. 

48. The Neuter Gender is attributed to a 7ioun which 
names neither sex. 

4. The approach of a storm^ accompanied by thunder and 
lightning, is a sublime spectacle. 

Parsing. Ajjproach is a subject common Noun. It has the attri- 
bute, neuter gender ; because, it names that which is neither a male 
nor a female. 

Note III. The Neuter Gender is attributed to Phrase Nouns and, 
also, to Sentential or Clause Nouns. 



196 



THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



5. The play was called '• A PeejJ Behind the ScenesJ^ 

Parsing. "J. Peep Behind the Scenes^^ is di jphrase subject noun. It 
has the neuter Gender. 

6. She heard the lirds sing. 

The Mrds sing is a sententml or clause object Noun. It has the neider 
Gender. 

Note IT. Sometimes, by a figurative use of language, Nouns, nam- 
ing inanimate objects, take either the Masculine, or Feminine Gender. 
(See Chap. Y., Personification.) 

7. The sun riseth, and he also goeth down. 

Parsing. Sun is a subject proper noun, which has the attribute 
neuter gender; -but, by a figure of speech, it has the attribute, mascu' 
line gender. 

8. The moon is up, how bright she shines. 

9. Look at yon ship, how well she sails. 

Note Y. Names of animals and plants, whose sexes cannot be 
readilj- distinguished, are frequently personified by it 

10. Even a child is known by its doings. 

11. Does the rabbit sleep with its eyes open ? 

12. The lark mounts up on joyous wings, 
In heaven's oavu light, it gayly sings. 

The Means of Knowing the Genders of Nouns. 

4©. The Genders of Nouns may be known in three 
ways ;— 

First. By tlieir meanings. The Genders of most Eng- 
lish Nouns are known by their meanings or ideas only 



Male. 


Female . 


Male. 


Female. 




Bachelor 


maid 


Husband 


wife 


• 


Beau 


belle 


King 


queen 




Boy 


girl 


Lad 


lass 




Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 




Buck 


doe 


Master 


mistress 




Bull 


cow 


Milter 


spawner 




Bullock 


heifer 


Monk 


nun 




Cock 


hen 


Nephew 


niece 




Colt 


filly 


Ram 


ewe 




Drake 


duck 


Sloven 


slut 




Earl, Count 


countess 


Son 


daughter 







MEANS OF KNOWING GENDEK. 


19i 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


FemaUr 


Father 
Gander 
Hart 
Horse 


mother 
goose 
roe 
mare 


Stag 
Steer 
Uncle 
Wizard 


hind 
heifer 
aunt 
witch. 


Second, 


By prefix modifications. 




Male, 
Man-kind 
Male-teaclier 


Female. 
woman-kind 
female-teaclier 


Male. 
Man-servant 
He-goat 


Female. 
maid-servant 
she-goat. 



Third, By suffix modifications. 



Female. 



Male, 



Abbot 


abbess 


Marquis 


Actor 


actress 


Mayor 


Adulterer^ 


adulteress 


Mediator 


Arbiter 


arbi tress 


Monitor 


Auditor 


audi tress 


Murderer 


Author 


authoress 


Negro 


Baron 


baroness 


Orator 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Patron 


Canon 


canoness 


Peer 


Caterer 


cateress 


Poet 


Chanter 


chan tress 


Porter 


Competitor 


competitress 


Preceptor 


Conductor 


conductress 


Priest 


Count, Earl 


countess 


Prince 


Czar 


czarina 


Prior 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Progenitor 


Demon 


demoness 


Procurer 


Director 


directress 


Prophet 


Doctor 


doctress 


Protector 


Duke 


duchess 


Quaker 


Editor 


editress 


Seamster 


Elector 


electress 


Shepherd 


Emperor 


empress 


Songster 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Sorcerer 


Fornicator 


fornicatress 


Sultan 


Founder 


foundress 


Suitor 


God 


goddesk^ 


Tailor 


Governor 


governess 


Tempter 


Hebrew 


hebrewess 


Tiger 


Heir 


heiress 


Traitor 


Hermit 


hermitess 


Treasurer 


Host 


hostess 


Tutor , 


Huckster 


bucks tress 


Viscount 


Hunter 


huntress 


Votary- 


Idolater 


idolatress 


Ad minis trator 


Inheritor 


inheritress 


Arbitrator 


Instructor 


instructress 


Coadjutor 


Jew 


Jewess 


Executor 


Lion 


lioness 


Testator 



Fe7nale, 

marchioness 

mayoress 

mediatress 

monitress 

murderess 

negress 

oratress 

patroness 

peeress 

poetess 

portress 

preceptress 

priestess 

princess 

prioress 

progenitress 

procuress 

prophetess 

protectress 

quakeress 

seamstress 

shepherdess 

songstress 

sorceress 

sultaness, sultana 

suitress 

tailoress 

temptress 

tigress 

traitress 

treasuress 

tutoress 

viscountess 

votaress 

administratrix 

arbitratrix 

coadjutrix 

executrix 

testatrisL. 



198 THE GRA^niAR OF LAJS^GUAGE. 



Peeson. 

Lit. Def. The word, persan, means sounding through. (See Person- 

ators.) 

5©. Person is a logical attrilute^ which a noun derives 

from the relations of its ideal to the narration. 

51. Nouns have three kinds of Person; namely, 
First^ Second^ and Third Person. 

First Person. 

52. The First Person is an attribute of a noun naming the 

narrator. 

Examples. 

1 . Am I Joseph f I am Joseph. 

Grammatical Analysis. Joseph is a second subject proper Noun. 
If, has the attributes, mascuhne gender, first Person. Joseph has the 
jlrsi Person, because it names the narrator. 

2. We, inhabitants of the State of Maine, do petition, etc. 

3. The property was left to us, his successors. 

Second Person. 

53- The Second Person is an attribute of a noun naming 

the narratee. 

4. Brutus. Marh Anthony^ here, take you Caesar's body. 

Parsing. Ma/rk Antho^riy is a subject proper noun, mascuhlne gender, 
second Person. It has the logical attribute, second Person, because it. 
names the narratee. 

5. Go, slaves^ and do your master's bidding. 
'6. How dear thou art ! 0, Auld Lang Syne. 

Auld Lang Syne is a phrase subject noun. It has the second Person. 

Third Person. 

54:. Tlie Third Person is an attribute of a noun naming 
neither a narrator nor a narratee. 



PEKSONS OF KOUNS. 199 

7. Heaven keep that monster from Othello's mind. 

Id this example, each Noun has the attribute, third Person ; because 
it names neither the narrator nor the narratee. 

Note I. Any one of the three persons may be attributed to a Phrase 
Noun, and, also, to a Sentential or Clause Noun. 

8. She heard the bird sing. 

Tlie Mrd \_to\ sing is a clause first object Noun, neuter gender, third 
Person. 

Note II. Narrators usually name themselves by using the person- 
ators, ij my^ mine^ me, we^ om\ ours^ us. 

Note III. "When the narrator addresses himself as he would another 
individual, his own name has the second Person ; when he narrates his 
own actions as those of another individual, his own name has the third 
Person. 

9. Said I to myself, " Charles Green^ mark my words, 
^ You mean to be a good, clever fellow, but you miss it very 
often ; you know you do, Mr, Charles Green.'' " 

Charles Green is in the second Person, although really the name of 
the person speaking or the narrator. 

In Caesar's Commentaries we find passages, similar to the following, 
written by Csesar, concerning himself; — 

10. Caesar orders the troops to follow, but scarcely have 
they reached the hill-top, when Caesar perceives one approach- 
ing, who informs Csesar, etc. 

In this example, CcEsar is in the third Person, although really the 
name of the writer or narrator. 

Note IY. Those addressed are usually named by thou^ thy^ thine, 
thee, you, ye, your, yours. When the one, making the address, uses the 
name of the one addressed, as that of a third individual, that name has 
the third Person ; thus, Mr. Brown says to Mr. Williams ; — 

11. Ah, Mr. Williams! I hope Mr. Williams is well to- 
day ! How is Mr. Williams^ business ? Yery happy to meet 
Mr. Williams. 

In this example, Williams is in the third Person, although in reality 
the name of the person addressed, which has the second Person. 

. 12. Hear, land of cakes, and brother Scots ! 

13. Friends! Komans! Countrymen! Lovers! Lend me 
your ears. 



200 THE GEAMMAR OF LAXGUAGK 

The Means of Knowing the Peeson of Nouns. 

33, Tlie Person of Nouns may be shown iu two 
ways ; — 

First By tlie meaning only. 

14. Hail, holy light! Come here, hoys. 

We know that the I^oiins, lights doys, have the Second Person, be- 
cause they name narratees. 

15. Wa7^ brings famine^ pestilence^ and death. 

We know that the Nouns, wo.r, famine^ pestilence^ deaths have the 
Thhd Person, because they name neither narrators nor narratees. 

Second. By the apposition of a Nonn with a pronoun. 

16. J Coesar^ send these things to you, Eomans. 

We know that the Noun, C<xsar^ is in the First Person, because it is 
in apposition with that which is personated by the personator. 

17. I am the man. Ye are the light of the world. 

NUMBEE. 

Lit. Def. The word, number^ ^ means that which shows how many. 

56. ISTuMBEE is a logical attrilute^ which a noun derives 
from an ideal of one, or of more than one. 

57. Nouns have two kinds of Number; namely, 
Singular., and Plural Number. 

Singular Number, 

58. The SiNGULAE Number is an attrihute of a noun nam- 
ing an idea of one object^ or of one group of objects. 

Examples. 

1. The condition of the army was deplorable. 

Parsing. Condition is a subject noun, mascuhne gender, third per- 
son, singular Number. Condition has the logical attribute, singular 
Number, because it names an idea of one object. 

1 XuMBEE. {b)er^ that wMch; num, counts, numbers. See A.vith..^ j^2i,7neration. 



.NUMBERS OF NOUNS. 201 

Army is an adjunct noun, neuter gender, third person, singula/r 
Number. Army has the singular Number, because it names the idea 
of one group or collection of objects. 

2. A pu^ll, who learns every lesson and regards every 
rule, deserves the commendation of the teacher. 

3. What is the meaning of the phrase, " Multum in Parvo f " 

Multum in parvo is an adjunct noun, in apposition with phrase, 
neuter gender, third person, singular Number. 

4. The officer ordered the men to make haste. 

The men to make ha^te is a clause first object noun, neuter gender, 
third person, singular Number. 

Plural Number. 

Lit. Def. The word, plural,^ means telonging to many folds. 

59. The Plural Number is an attribute of a noun naming 
an ideal of two^ or more objects. 

5. The devastations^ committed by the troops^ greatly dis- 
tressed the inhabitants. 

Parsing. Devastations is a subject common noun, neuter gender, 
third person, plural Number. 

6. Pupils, who learn all the lessons, and regard all the 
rules, deserve the commendations of the teachers. 

Note L Phrase and Clause Nouns are generally in the Singular 
Number, but they may be used in either Number. 

7. All the " Hail Columbias^^'' which you have ever heard, 
are but repetitions of one " Hail Columbia." 

Note II. A Noun, which is Singular in form and Plural in signifi- 
cation, is called a Collective Noun, or a Noun of Multitude. Sometimes, 
however, in consequence of a contraction, an adjunct Noun has the 
appearance of a Collective Noun, when it is really a Noun in the Sin- 
gular Number. 

8. The y^ry were of different opinions. 

Special Analysis. Jury is a collective noun or a noun of ovMltitude; 
because, although singular in form, it is plural in meaning. 

"• Plfeal. al^ ; ur^ mor-, several ; pi, folds, times. 

9^» 



202 THE GEAMMAR OF LAKGITAGE. 

Note III. A Collective Noun, meaning the group, collection, or 
number named, must be considered as Singular; while a Collective 
Nouu, meaning the individuals in the group, must be Plural. 

9. The army ivas defeated with great slaughter. 

10. The committee were unanimous in their opinions. 

11. The jury was charged very carefully by the judge, and 
yet they could not agree. 

Note IY. In statements imputing blame to persons, the speaker 
may mention himself first ; in all others, he should mention himself 
last. 

The Means of knowing the Numbers of Nouns, 

6®. The JSTiimbers of Nouns may be known in three 
ways ; — 

First By their meanings only. There are only a few 
Nonns of this class. 

12. My sheep is tame. Your sheep are wild. 
Second. By suffix and root modifications. 

13. This bush was taken from those bushes. Your hat is 
among those hats. 

The Noun, hush^ is known to have the Singular Number, because it 
is used without a suffix. 

The Noun, hushes^ is known to have the Plural Number, by the suf- 
fix, es. 

The Noun, hats^ is known to have the Plural Number, because it has 
the suffix, s. 

14. That man is looking at those men. This goose should 
go with those geese. 

The Noun, man^ is known to have the Singular Number, by its form. 
Men shows the Plural Number, by the modification caused by a being 
changed to e, in the root. 

15. The jury could not agree until they had asked the 
opinion of the Court. 

That is, the members of the jury, or the jury-menj could not 
agree, etc. 



MEANS OF KNOWING NUMBER. 



203 



I. 


Adding s. 




Adding es. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural. 


Sea 


seas 


Bush 


bushes 


House 


houses 


Box 


boxes 


Cab 


cabs 


Mattress 


mattresses 


Day 


days 


Lens 


lenses 


Lad 


lads 


Adz 


adzes 


Monarch {ch har i ) monarchs 


Church (c^soft) churches 


Eunuch 


eunuchs 


Fish 


fishes. 


11. F and Fe Regular. F 


and Fe Irregular, changed 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular 


Plural. 


Chief 


chiefs 


Thief 


thieves 


Gulf 


gulfs 


Calf 


calves 


Fife 


fifes 


Wife 


wives 


Strife 


. strifes 


Life 


lives 


Flagstaff 


flagstaffs 


Staff 


staves. 


Wharf (in 


England) wharfs. 


Wharf (i 


in America) whar\' 



And many more in / and fe, unclassified, ff, is always regular ex- 
cept in staff, as a simple. 



Foot 

Goose 

Tooth 



III. Irregular by Changing Letters, 

feet 



teeth 



Man 


men 


Mouse 


mice 


Louse 


lice. 



indices 
indexes 



IV. Double in Form, or Redundant in Form, and Variable 
in Signification. 

brothers Index (Algebraic) 

brethren Index (Pointer) 

dice Pea (different kind) 

dies Pea (different seeds) 

genii Penny (the coin) 

geniuses. Penny (the value) 

61. Many Nouns, derived from other languages, re- 
tain their original Plurals, and some have an English 
form in the Plural also. The singular generally ends 
in a, is^ us, um, on, or x. They are derived princi* 
pally from the Latin and the Greek languages. 



Brother (same family) 
Brother (same society) 
Die (for gaming) 
Die (for coining) 
Genius (spirit) 
Genius (talented) 



peas 

pennies 

pence. 



204 



THE GEAMMAE OF LAIS'GUAGK 



I. Those in a, have the Plural in <e^ or as. 

Singular. Plural. Singular, Plural. 



Formula 

Lamina 
Larva 



formulae, or 
formulas 
laminae 
larvss 



Minutia 

Nebula 

Miasma 



minutise 
nebulas 
miasmata, or 
miasmas. 



II. Those in is, have the Plural in es. 



Amanuensis 

Analysis 

Antithesis 

Axis 

Basis 



amanuenses 

analyses 

antitheses 

axes 

bases 



Hypothesis 

Metamorphosis 

Crisis 

Ellipsis 

Thesis 



hypotheses 

metamorphoses 

crises 

ellipses 

theses. 



III. Those in iis^ have the Plural ^, or es. 



Alumnus 
Focus 
Fungus 
Genus 



alumni 

foci 

fungi, funguses 

genera 



Magus 
Eadius 
Stimulus 
Ignis Fatuus 



magi 
radii 
stimuli 
Ignes Fatui. 



IV. Those in urrij on., have the Plural in a, or ums and ons, 

animalcuia 

arcana 

data 

desiderata 

effluvia 



Animalculum 

Arcanum 

Da.tum 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Encomium 

Erratum 

Automaton 

Criterion 



Gymnasium 
Medium 



encomia, -miums 
errata 

automata, -tons 
criteria, -rions 



gymnasia, -siums 
media, mediums 
Memorandum memoranda, -dums 
Momentum momenta, -tums 
Scholium scholia, scholiums 

Stratum strata, stratums 

Speculum specula 

Phenomenon phenomena 
Stamen stamina, stamens. 



V. Nouns, ending in x, have Plurals in ces, or xes. 



Apex 

Appendix 

Calx 



Beau 
Belle 



apices, apexes Vertex 

appendices, -dixes Yortex 
calces 

VI. French Words. 



vertices, vertexes 
vortices, vorte:^es. 



beaux Monsieur, Mr. Messieurs, Messrs. 

belles Mademoiselle, Miss. Mademoiselles, Misses, 
Madame, Mrs. Mesdames, Mrs. 



MEANS OF KNOWING NUMBEK, 205 

3fr., Mnster, hoij, Masters 3IisSy a girl Misses^ girU 

Mr., Mister, man, Messieurs Mrs., married ivoman, or women. 

Rule First. When tivo, or more of the same 7iame are 

addressed^ prefix the plural title, 

a. Mr. William Brown The Messieurs Brown 

b. Miss Jones and 31iss Brown The Misses Jones and Brown 

c. Master James and Master John Masters James and John Brown 

Brown 

d. Miss Jane and Miss Ann Brown Misses Jane and Ann Brown. 

KuLE Second. When the words, two, three, S^c, are pre* 
jixed, pluralize the noun only, 

e. The two Mr. Smiths. The three Miss Posters. 

yil. German Words. 
Child children Ox oxen. 

YIII. Hebrew Words. 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Cherub cherubim, cherubs Seraph seraphim, seraphs, 

IX. 0, after a Consonant, adds es; but there are exceptions. 

Cargo cargoes Canto cantos 



Hero 


heroes 


Grotto grottos, 


-toes 


Negro 


negroes 


Motto mottos, 


-toes 


Volcano 


volcanoes 


Solo solos 




Wo 


woes 


And some others. 





X. Y, after a Consonant, is changed into ies ; some exceptions. 
Lady ladies Regular forms ; Day days 

Fly flies Valley valleys 

Spy spies Joj Joy^> ^^' 

Sicily Sicilies Some Propemouns do not chan^^e. Henry HeiU7S 

Ptolemy Ptolemies Mary Marys. 

AUoquy Alloquies. Likewise, Colloquy, and Soliloquy. 

XI. Some Nouns have no Plural ; and hence, are said to be 

Defective in Number. 

Gold Pride Wheat Wine 

Silver Meekness Eye Plour 

Tin, &c. Industry, &c. Barley, &c. Tea, &c. 

But some nouns of this class take plural forms to signify different 
kinds ; as, the wines of Europe, and the teas of China. 



206 THE GRAMMAR OF LAKGUAGE. 

XIL Some Nouns have no Singular ; and are, therefore, 
Defective in Number. 

Ashi.s Scissors Clothes Vitals Nippers 

Bellows Shears Goods Bowels, &c. Tongs, &c. 

XIII. Some Nouns have the same Forms in both Numbers. 

Deer Salmon Brace Vermin 

Sheep Trout Dozen Hose 

Swine Fry Gross Yoke, &c. 

Xiy. Some Nouns are Plural in Form, and Singular, or 
Plural in Meaning. These are Variable in Meaning. 

(t. JSanies of the sciences in ics ; as Mathematics, ethzcs, &c. 
h. Names of diseases and ceremonies in s : as, Mumps, measles, nup- 
tials, &c. 

c. Alms, amends, news, pains (effort), odds, vfn^es, &c. 

XV. Letters, Numerals, and Signs, form the Plural by an- 
nexing the Apostrophe and s ; as, the A's, the B's, the s's, 
the t's, the 2's, the 6's, the +'s, the — 's. 

Hundred and thousand are pluralized, when used to mean an indefi- 
nite number; as, hundreds were saved, thousands were squandered; 
but after a numeral, they are singular ; as, 5 hundred, 10 thousand. 

XVL Compound Nouns, formed by joining a Noun and an 
Adjunct, pluralize the Noun ; those formed by uniting two 
Nouns, pluralize both. 

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp Man-servant men-servants 

Cousin-o-erman cousins-german Knight-templar knights-templars 
Hanger-on hangers-on Handful (is regular) handfuls. 

Third By their adjuncts. Sometimes the Number of 
a Noun is known by its adjunct. 

16. In a multitude of counsellors, there is safety. 

The Noun, multitude^ is known to have the Singular Number, by its 
adjunct, a. 

17. This sheep is mine; those sheep are yours. 

Note Y. When the adjuncts, many, a, belong to the same Noun, the 
Noun has the Singular Number. 

18. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, and w^aste 
its sweetness on the desert aii\ 



CASES OF NOUKS. 207 

Case. 
Lit. Def. The word, cOrse/ means ending^ falling. 
G3. Case is a rhetorical attribute^ which the noun derives 
from its use or office in the sentence, 

63. In the English language, four Cases of tho 
Noun are distinguished ; namely, the Nominative^ the 
Objective^ the Vocative^ and the Possessive. 

Note I. Philosophically considered, there will always be as many 
Cases in any language as it has different relators, with the addition of 
a Case for subjects and another for first objects ; because, that is the 
real number of different rhetorical uses. Hence, we see that the reason, 
why one language appears to differ from another in the number of 
Cases, is because, in one of them, more of these Cases receive special 
names than in the other. In the English, only four Cases are specially 
named; in the Latin, six; in the G-reek, five. Most of the modera 
European languages have four Cases. 

Nominative Case, 

Lit. Dep. The word, nominative,'^ means belonging to that which 
names, causes, etc. 

64:. The Nominative Case is a rhetorical attrihute, taken ly 
u subject noun, to show that its sentence or clause is inclej)endent 
in form ; or, that its sentence or clause is not to he taken with 
another, unless joined to it hy a connector, or hy a relative ad- 
junct. 

Note IL The Nominative Singular is sometimes called the Leading 
Case of the Noun. The other Cases are called the Oblique, or Second- 
ary, and are said to be derived from, or io be from the Nominative Sin- 
gular. 

1 Case, e, belonging to; s— ^, that wMcli; ca, falls, ends. (See cadence^ 
eamoal.) 

2 NoMiNATivB, {a)tiAje, ; nomin = nomen, name, noiin, actor. 

Note. It must be borne in mind, that Case is an attribute or property which 
evemy Noun derives from its rhetorical use or office, and that the Noun may not have 
a modification by which this attribute is shown. In many lanfruaores, as in the 
Latin and the Greek, the Case of the Noun is shown by its' termination, which is 
usually called the Case-ending. This Case-ending or Modification, which is only 
the sign of the Case, is often mistaken for the attribute, Casa, itself. The Case is a 
property of the Noun, the modification is merely a sign of that property. 



208 THE GKAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Examples. 

« 

1. Man needs but little here below. He needs but little 
here below. 

Grammatical Analysis, Man is a subject common Noun ; masculine 

, third , singular . It has the rhetorical attribute, nomi- 

naJive Case, to show that its sentence, man needs but little here below, is 
independent in its form ; or, that in its present form, it must not be 
taken as a clause in a compound sentence, unless it be joined to 
another, or another be joined to it, either hj a connector, or by a 
relative adjunct. 

2. Thy word created all, and Thou dost sustain all things 
which Thoa hast made. 

The subject, personated by Thou, is put in the nominative Case, to 
show that its clause, Thou dost sustain, etc., is independent in its form, 
and hence, requires the connector, and, in order that it maybe a clause 
of the compound sentence. 

3. When I laid the foundations of the deep, where wert 
thou ? In what place wert thou, when I laid the foundations 
of the deep ? 

The subject, personated by ij is put in the nominative Case, to shovr 
that its clause is independent in its form, and that it has become a 
clause solely by the use of the relative adjunct, when, 

4. Has this lesson been studied by these students ? This 
lesson has been studied by these students. 

5. " The Wrecker^ s Daugliter^^ was very beautifully played 
by the band. 

The Wrecker^s Daughter is a phrase subject Noun; neuter , 

third , singular , and in the nominative Case. 

6. Dust thou art, was not spoken of the soul. 

Dust thou art is a sentential or clause subject noun ; Neuter , 

third , singular , and in the nominative Case. 

7. Saturn is said to have come into Italy. 

Saturn to have come into Italy is a clause subject Noun; neuter, 
third, singular, and in the nominative Case. Its subject, Saturn^ 
is apparently in the Nominative, while really it is in the Objective 
Case. It is apparently in the Nominative, to show that the whole 
complex sentence, Saturn is said, etc., is independent of aU other 
clauses. 



CASES OF JSrOUNS. 209 

8. The man is said to have come. He is said to have come. 

The subject Noun, man^ although apparenthjin the Nominative Case, 
is, realhj in the Objective Case. It has the nominative or independent 
form, to show that the whole complex sentence is independent of any 
other sentence. The real form of the sentence is, the man to have covte^ 
is said ; him to have come is said . 

9. The Alleghanies are supposed by some persons to be 
older than the Rocky Mountains. Some persons suppose t}ae 
Alleghany to be older than the Rocky Mountains. 

Ohjective Case. 

05. The Objective Case is a rhetorical attribute given, 
first, to all object nouns ; and second, to subject nouns of cloMses 
dependent in form^ and to subject nouns of some second object 
and of some adjunct clauses. 

10. We saw the children with the boy in the park. We 
saw them with him in the park. 

Parsing. Children is an object common Noun; common gender, 
third person, plural number. It has the rhetorical attribute, ohjective 
Case ; because, it is an object Noun. 

11. The students were singing " The Homes of our Child- 
hood.'' 

Parsing. The Homes of our Childhood is a phrase obje ct proper 
Noun; neuter, third, singular. It has the attribute, objective Case, 
because, it is an object Noun. 

, 12. A serenader sings, ^'Meet me by Moonlight." 

Parsing. Meet me by Moonlight is a clause object proper Noun ; 
neut., th., sing., objective Case. 

Note III. Many attribute the Objective Case to a clause second 
object. This practice is undoubtedly correct, although it is contrary to 
the general usage. "In that good time coming," when those priEciples 
upon which the correct use of Language depends, shall be fully devel- 
oped and be made familiar, the Objective Case will, without doubt, 
always be attributed to subject Nouns of second object clauses and also 
of adjunct clauses. 

13. There is no excuse for him talking to me in that vjay. 
Parsing. Him talking to me in that way is a clause second object 



210 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Noun; related by for to the affirmer, is. Its subject, personated by 
Mm^ is in the objective Case, to show that its clause is dependent. 

14. Wh^t do you think of her dressing so extravagantly ? 

Yocative Case, 
Lit. Def. The word, vocative^'^ means like that which calls. 

60. The Vocative Case is attributed to an exclamative or 
•appellative noun^ when its true case can not he distinguished. 

Note IY. The Yocative Case is sometimes called the Absolute Case, 
the Independent Case, or the Nominative Absolute. The term, Absolute^ 
is meaningless as here used; because, a Noun can have no Case unless 
it has some use or office in the sentence. 

15. "An arrant rogue P'' said the knight, musingly. 

The exclamative Noun, rogue^ has the attribute vocative Case ; be- 
cause, the narratee cannot know its use or office. 

16. Halloa, there ! William I 

The appellative Noun, William^ has the vocative Case ; because, no 
means are given by which to know its use or office in the sentence. 
That is, whether the narrator intended, / want William; or, William^ 
look here. 

Possessive Case. 

Lit. Def. The word, possessive,^ means like that which puts, limits^ 
keeps. 

67. The Possessive Case is a rhetorical attrihute given ; 
first, to adjunct nouns ; and second, to subject nouns of some 
second object andj also, of some adjunct clauses, 

1 7. A man^s life is not the most valuable part of his pos- 
sessions. 

Parsing. Man^s is an adjunct common Noun ; masc, third, sing. It 
has the rhetorical attribute, possessive Case ; because, it is an adjunct 
Noun. 

Possessions is Noun ; neut., third, plu. It has the attribute, 

possessive Case ; because, it is an adjunct Noun. 

18. Can you sing any part of '^ Home, Sweet Home ? " 



1 Vocative. {a)tive, ; -eoo -= -x^o^ = -yoic, calls, speaks, talks. See voieey 

Tee, 'Vocation., avocation. 

2 Possessive, ive^ \ 8 = t^ ; posses, has been placed, or owned. 



CASES OF NOUNS. 211 

The plirase adjunct Noun, Home^ Sweet Home^ is in the possessive 
Case. 

19. My brother's wife's father's partners' houses were 
burned last night. 

20. The houses of the partners of the father of the wife 
of my brother were burned last night. 

21. The houses of the partners of my brother's wife's 
father were burned last night. 

Note Y. Grammarians usually attribute the Objective Case to an 
adjunct Noun related by of. No good, reason for this can be given. 
This error originated thus ; — 

The fact was observed that second object Nouns have the Objective 
Case, and that all second object Nouns are related to predicates by 
relators; hence, was asserted the general dogma, "A Noun or Pro- 
noun, used as the object of a Preposition, must be in the Objective 
Case." Overlooking the two facts ; Jirst, that a preposition may be 
used to show the relation of an adjunct Noun to its principal ; second^ 
of a verb in the infinitive mode to its subject ; and, that this dogma 
requires an adjunctive Noun to be in the Objective Case, and it also 
requires a verb in the injinitive mode to be in the Objective Case. (See 
Prepositions.) 

Note YI. The Possessive Case is frequently attributed to some sub- 
ject Nouns of some second object and, also, of some adjunct clauses. 

22. He spoke of the man's [man] going to Europe. 

Parsing. The man^s going to Europe is a second object clause Noun, 
related by of to the predicate, spoke. It is neuter, etc. Man^s is a sub- 
ject common Noun, of the second object clause, the man's going to Europe; 
masc, th., sing. It has the possessive Case, by common use. 

Note YIT. The attribute^ Case^ seems to have had its origin as a 
means of distinguishing the sentences and clauses of paragraphs, 
which were written continuously or without capitals and punctuations. 
That is, when the offices of words were distinguished by the modifica- 
tions of words and by their position in the sentences. Thus ; — 

23. Eomans friends countrymen and lovers lend me your 
ears hear me for my cause and be silent that ye may hear. 

Parsing. Romans is an appellative subject Noun. It has the 
rhetorical attribute, vocative Case ; because, it is either a subject, or an 
object Noun. 

Friends has the vocative Case ; because, it has the same use or 
office ; or, is in apposition or synonymous with Bomans, 



212 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

The Means of Knowing the Cases of Nouns. 

68. The Cases of Nouns may be known in two 
ways;— 

First By the use or office of the Noun, in a sentence. 
By its use or office in a sentence, the Case of a Noun, 
in any language, may be known. In the Bnghsh lan- 
guage, the use or office of the Noun is the only means, 
by which, the Nominative and Objective Cases may be 
known. 

Note YIII. The Yocative Case is used to accommodate those in- 
stances, in which, the use or office of an exclamative or appellative 
Noun cannot be distinctly ascertained. Hence, when the Vocative 
Case is attributed to a Noun, it is simply attributing to it the Nomina- 
tive, or the Objective Case. 

Second, By a suffix modification ; or, by a relator^ used 
to show the Possessive Case. The suffix modification 
is the apostrophe and s ['s], or the apostrophe ['] only. 

G9. Principle. If the noun end in ce, s, or x, the apos- 
trophe only is suffixed ; hut, if the noun do not end in ce, s, or 
X, the APOSTROPHE and s are suffixed, 

Exceptions. — The Apostrophe and s ['s] are sometimes 
used to denote the plural number. 

24. The parents' fondness for wealth is greater than the 
children's fondness for it. 

25. For peace* and for conscience' sake, restrain desire. 

26. This man's account of the matter, confirms the other 
men's account of it. 

27. Who bore, by turns, Ajax' seven-fold shield. 

Note IX. Some suffix the s with the apostrophe to Nouns ending in 
ce, s, or X, The practice should be condemned on account of its 
cacophony. 

28. Mrs. Hemans's fine lines on the death of Fergus. 



DECLENSION" OF THE NOUN. 



213 



The Declension of the Noun, 

70. Fourth, the DECLENSION of the Noun. 

Lit. Def. The word, declensiouj^ means the condition of that which 
slants or inclines. 

7 1 . The Declension of the Noun is the mode of showing 
iU attributes, Number, Case, and the modifications helonging to 
these attributes. 

Note I. The "Vocative Case has the same form as the Nominative 
and Objective Cases j hence, it need not be stated in the Declension. 





Table. 






SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


Norn. Sr Oh 


/^ Possessive. 


Nom. Sr Oh. 


^ Possessive. 


Sea 


sea's, or of sea 


Seas 


seas', or of seas 


Cab 


cab's, of cab 


Cabs 


cabs', of cabs 


Bush 


bush's, of bush 


Bushes 


bushes', of bushes 


Lens 


lens', of lens 


Lenses 


lenses', of lenses 


Chief 


chief's, of chief 


Chiefs 


chiefs', of chiefs 


Thief 


thief's, of thief 


Thieves 


thieves', of thieves 


Foot 


foot's, of foot 


Feet 


feet's, of feet 


Brother 


brother's, of brother 


Brothers 


brothers', of brothers 


Formula 


formula's, of formula 


Formulse, -as 


formulas', of formulas 


Axis 


axis', of axis 


Axes 


axes', of axes 


Stratum 


stratum's, of stratum 


Strata, tums 


strata's, tums', of — 


Apex 


apex', of apex 


Apices, exes 


apices', exes', of — 


Gold 


gold's, of gold 






Industry 


industry's, of industry 











Scissors 


scissors', of scissors 






Goods 


goods', of goods 


Hundred 


hundred's, of hundred 


Hundred, -ds hundred, dreds', of— 


Thousand 


{< K 


i( a 


« 


8, t, + 


of 8, oft, of + 


8's, t's, +'s 


of 8's, of t's, of +'s 



The plural of letters, numbers, signs, &c., which is formed by ad- 
ding the apostrophe and s, must be distinguished from the same signs 
when used to denote the Possessive Case. 

i Declension, mon, ; clen, slants, leans, obliques ; de, froin, away. This 

name may have been derived from the mode, in which, the Declension ol the Noun 
was written, and may explain why the Nominative Case was called the Principe 
Case, the others, the Oblique Cases. 



214 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 

• -V 

Syntax of Nouns. 

72, Fifth, the Syntax of the Noun. The Syntax of 
tlie Noun includes the position of Nouns in Sentences, 
and Bales in regard to the attributes of the Noun. 

Bules for the Position of Nouns. 
yS. Rule I. A subject noun^ luhich is emphatic and is 
used in a historic or declarative^ in a responsive^ or in a condi- 
tional sentence^ must he placed before its verb. 

Note I. Rule I. rests on a principle, common to all languages, 
that an emphatic Noun should be placed at the beginning of a sentence^' 
when this can be done, without depriving the narratee of the means 
of ascertaining the attributes of the Noun. 

Exception. — In poetic, and in highly descriptive narrative. 

Examples. 

1. My right there is none to dispute ; from the center all 
'round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. 

74:. Rule II. A subject noun, which is not emphatic, must 
follow the emphatic word of the sentence ; hence, in exclamative, 
in interrogative, and in imperative sentences, the subject noun 
must follow the verb. 

Note II. In these sentences, if a principal verb only be used, it 
must, of course, be emphatic and the subject noun must follow it ; if 
an auxiliary be emphatic, the subject Noun must foUow the auxiliary ; 
if an adjunct word be emphatic, the subject Noun must foUow the 
adjunct and its verb. 

2. Princifal verb emphatic. Laughest thou, Lochiel ? 
Said he so ? 

3. Auxiliary verb emphatic. Dost thou laugh, Lochiel ? 
Did he say this ? 

4. Adjunct of the verb emphatic. "When said he this ? 
"Why dost thou laugh ? 

75. Rule III. A first object noun must follow its verb; 
but, lohen a first object noun is emphatic, it must be placed at the 



SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 215 

heginning of the sentence^ if this can he done without its los- 
ing the means of knowing the noun^s attributes, 

5. The harp^ the monarch minstrel swept. The harp, 
which harp the monarch minstrel swept. 

7G. Rule IV. A second object noun must follow a first 
object noun^ if there be one ; but, when emphatic, a second object 
noun and its relator may be transposed, 

77. Rule Y. Generally , an appellative noun should pre- 
cede the address ; but, an exclamative noun may be placed in, 
any part of the sentence, 

6. Appellative, Mr. Jackson, is that apple sweet ? 
Error. Is that apple sweet, Mr. Jackson ? 

7. Exclamative, Hast thou a charm to stay the morning 
star I So long he seems to pause above thy bald and awful 
head, sovereign Blanc I 

Rules for the Attributes of Nouns, 

T8. Rule VI. A noun^ whose Gender is readily distin- 
guished, must have the modification^ if there be one, belonging to 
that Gender, 

To this Rule, many Exceptions exist. 

79. Rule VII. A noun, having the attribute. Plural 
Number, must have a modification, if there be one, to show its 
Plural Number, 

For Exceptions to this Rule, see Modifications showing Number. 

8. Here are ten pounds. Twenty rods of stone waU. 
Errors. Here are ten pound. Twenty rod of stone wall. 

8 O. Rule VIII. The subject noun of an independent sen- 
tence, of an independent clause, or of a dependent clause joined 
by a subordinate connector, or by a relative adjunct, must have 
the Nominative Case, 

Exception. — The subject Noun of a subject clause, not pre- 
ceded by for, apparently has the Nominative Case ; while, in 
reality, it has the Objective Case. 



216 THE GRAMMAR OF LAjJ^GUAGE. 

9. Saturn is said to have come. He is said to have come. 

10. It is wrong for him to be idle. For him to be idle, is' 
wrong. 

81. Rule IX. The subject noun of a first object clause^ 
dej^endent in form^ must have the Objective Case. 

11. They desired the man to conceal the matter. They 
desired him to conceal the matter. 

12. Let the horses run, if they wish to run. Let them [to] 
run, if they wish to run. 

82. Rule X. The subject nouns of second object and^ also^ 
of adjunct clauses^ have either the Objective^ or the Possessive 
Case. 

13. Did you hear of any person finding a pocket book ? 

14. Did you hear of any person's finding a pocket book? 

15. Did you hear of the boy's killing the bear ? 

83. Rule XI. An object noun must have the Objective 
Case. 

Note III. In the Latin and Greek languages, first object Nouns 
have the Accusative Case. In Latin, a second object Noun has the 
Dative, Accusative, or Ablative; in Greek, the Genitive, Dative, or 
Accusative. 

84:. Rule XII. An exclamative or appellative noun 
must have the Vocative CasCj when its real Case cannot be 
determined. 

85. Rule XIII. An adjunct noun must have the Possessive 
Case. 

86. Rule XI Y. Two or more nouns in apposition or 
used synonymously^ must have the same Case. 

Note IY. This rule depends upon the principle, that the Case of a 
Noun depends upon its use or office in the sentence; hence, two or 
more Nouns, having the same use or office, whether they be in the 
same or in different sentences, must have the same Case. 

16. Thomas, the Doctor, pursues his profession very 
successfully. 



SYNTAX OF NOUNS. ' 217 

Doctor has the same use or office in the sentence as Thomas ' hence, 
it must have the same (Nominative) Case. 

17. The child was named Henry. 

Child and Henry are both subjects of a simple sentence ; hence, 
both must have the same (Nominative) Case. 

18. They named the child, Henry. 

19. Is sugar a solid substance ? 

20. Is this plant '' the Lily of the Valley ? " 

87. Rule XV. Jl sentence^ which is quoted^ must he taken 
as it was constructed hy its narrator ; and^ its nouns must he 
parsed accordingly. 

21. After his victory, Perry wrote, "We have met the 
enemy, and they are ours." 

Note T. Since the G-rammatical Analysis or Parsing of a Noun 
depends so much on its Logical and Rhetorical Analyses, it fohows 
that the student should always be able to give the three Analyses; 
and, especially should the student be required to produce the Logical 
and Rhetorical Analyses, when he hesitates in giving the G-rammat- 
ical Analysis. 

When students are required to analyze a Noun, they should give its 
Logical, its Rhetorical, and its Grammatical Analyses ; but, when re- 
quired to ** Parse a Noun," they should give its Grammatical Analysis 
only. 

Analyze the following Nouns. 

Examples. 

1. The sonh greatest care was exercised for the health and 
for the happiness of his parents. 

General Analysis. T S f +t S P. Translation ; T = the sonh great- 
est care ; S = was exercised for the health [of his parents] ; + ==: and ; t 
= [the son's greatest care] ; S =r [was exercised] for the hai^piness of 
his parents ; f — [by him]. 

A small letter is used to represent a part of the thought, of whicli 
part, no idea is expressed : but, if any idea belonging to that part of 
the thought be expressed, a capital letter is used. 

Special Analysis. Logicalh', sort's^ is an idea, subordinate to the re- 
ceiver, core; rhetorically, son^s is used as or has the office of an adjun -t 
of the subject, care, to which its relation is shown \yy tlie apostrophe : 
iHEREFOiiE, grammatically, son''s is an adjunct common word Noun, IL 

10 



218 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

has the attributes, masculine gender, third person, singular number, and 
the possessive case. It has this case, because, in the English, all td- 
junct Nouns have the possessive case. 

It is declined; Singular, Ao??!., son; Ohj., SON; Foe, SON; Poss., 
son's (Here!); or, of son. Plural, Nom. and Obj., sons; Voc, sons; 
Foss.j sons' ; or, of sons. 

Note II. In giving the Declension, when the Noun, which is parsed, 
is found, the student should say, "^ere.V' to show that he knows why 
he is declining the Noun, or that he has found it. This practice secures 
attention to the Declension. 

Note III. Students who have become familiar with Parsing, may- 
give the adjunct words only of the different kinds of attributes ; as, 
masculine ; third ; singular ; possessive . 

They may also omit naming the classifications of the Noun ; thus, 
son^s is a noun; instead of, son^s is an adjunct common word Noun. 

Parse the Nouns in the following examples. 

2. "Dust thou art," was not spoken to the human soul by 
its Creator. 

Parsing. Dust thou art is a subject common clause Noun; or, a 
clause Noun. It is neuter, third, singular, nominative. It is in the 
nominative; because, etc. Rule. 

DvM is a subject Noun; neut., third, sing., nom. It is in the nom- 
inative case, because it is the subject of a subject clause, which is 
quoted. It is declined ; Sing., Ao??i., dust (Here!) ; 05;"., dust; Poss., 
dust's ; or, of dust. Plural, etc. 

Note IY. At the option of the teacher, the Vocative case may be 
mentioned in the Declension, or it may be omitted. 

Note Y. Y^hen the superiors are used to denote the uses or offices 
of words in sentences, they may very easily be translated into the 
names of the Grammatical classes of words. Thus ; — 





Rhetorically. 




GrammaticaUy. 


1 is 


a Y^ord Subject; 


therefore, 


a [Word] Subject Noun. 


Ip ' 


Phrase " 


a 


" Phrase " " 


Ic ' 


Clause 


(( 


'' Clause " " 


2 


Y'^ord Predicate ; 


u 


" [Y^ord] Yerb. 


2p ' 


' Phrase " 


u 


" Comp. •' 


3 ' 


Y'ord First Object ; 


u 


" [Y'ord] First Object Noun. 


3p ' 


' Phrase " 


u 


'' Phrase " " 


8c ' 


' Clause " 


(t 


" Clause " " 


4 


Relator ; 


(( 


" Preposition. 



MODES OF ANALYSIS. 219 







Ehetorically. 




Grammatically. 


6 


is a 


Word Second Object : therefore, 


a [Word] Second Obj. Noun. 


Sp 


u 


Phrase " 


u 


" Phrase 


oc 


u 


Clause ** 


(( 


" Clause '^ *' 


6 


a 


WordAdj,rel'dbyJJ^^ [ 


u 


" [Word] Adjunct Noun. 


6p 


(( 


Phrase 


u 


" Phrase 


6c 


u 


Clause 


u 


" Clause " " 


6 


(i 


Adjunct of a Noun ; 


u 


" Adjective. 


6 


a 


WordAdjunctj-^°f^[ 


a 


" [Word] Adverb. 


6p 


u 


Phrase " 


<( 


" Phrase " 


6c 


a 


Clause " " 


u 


" Clause "• 


7 


(i 


Personator ; 


u 


" Pronoun. 


8 


u 


Exclamative ; 


it 


" Exclamation. 


9 


u 


Connector ; 


li 


" Conjunction. 



A Pronoun, whose Noun is expressed, would be signified bj writing 
the figures expressing the two; thus, 71, a pronoun, used in the 
place of a subject; or 78, a pronoun personating a first object, etc. ; 7p, 
a pronoun personating a phrase ; 7c, a pronoun personating a clause. 
Thus;— 

3. The son's^ greatest care^ was exercised for the health 

and for the happiness^ of his parents^ 

SoviS^ denotes that son^s, rhetorically, is an adjunct; and hence, 
grammatically (with the apostrophe), is an adjunct Noun. Care^ de- 
notes that care^ rhetoricaUy, is a subject ; and hence, grammatically, is 
a subject Noun; etc. 

4. Dust^ thou art^c, was not spoken to the human souP by 
its Creator^ 



I 



5. Nathan' said' unto* David^ '^Thou^' artUhe' man\"'^ 

General Analysis, Logically, Nathan said^ etc., is a complex com- 
pound thought, whose immediate elements are the simple thought, 
Nathan said unto David, and thou art the rtian. 

The first immediate element, Nathan said unto David, is a single 
thought of three parts, of which the first part is Nathan, the actor or 
first primary idea. The second part is said, the- action or second 
primary idea ; unto, the idea of relation between the idea, David, and 
the action, said; and David., an idea subordinate to the action, said. 
Its third part is the simple thought, thou art the man, used as the re- 
ceiver of the action, said. 

The second immediate element, thou art the man, is a simple thought 
of two parts; of which, thou, man. is the actor, exister, or first primary 
id^a; c/>?^ is the action, existence, or second primary idea; t?ie, an idea 
subordinate to the actor, inan. 



220 THE gra:mmaii of language. 

Rhetoricol Analysis. Katlian said. etc.. is a complex compound sen* 
tence ; hence, it expresses a complex compound thought. Its imme- 
diate elements are the two clauses, A'tt^/ia?^ said unto David ; thou art 
the 'man. 

Its first clause, Xathan said unto David, is a simple independent 
clause, actively constructed: of vrhichj Xathan, is the subject; said, 
the predicate or affirmer of the subject, Xathan ; unto, a relator, show- 
ing the relation of the second object, David, to the predicate, said; 
David, second object of predicate, said, related by unto. 

Thou art tiit man. is a first object clause, joined to the first clause by 
its form, which is not expressed : because, the clause is quoted. 

Its second clause, thou art the man, is a simple dependent first object 
clause, actively constructed; in which, thou personates the subject, 
man: art is the predicate or affirmer of the subject, man ; the, an ad- 
junct of the subject, man; man, the subject of a dependent first object 
clause, which is quoted. 

G^rammatical Analyses or Parsing of the Xouns. Xathan is a subject 
proper word Xoun : masculine, third, singular, nominative. ^Prixciple. 
The subject noun. Xathan, has the nominative case, to show that its 
clause is not to be taken with another unless joined by a connector, or 
by a relative adjunct; hence, we have, as a part of Rule YIIL. "a 
subject noun of an independent clause must have the Nominative case.-' 

It is declined: Singular, Xom., Nathax (Here!); Ohj. and Foe, 
Nathax: Poss.. Xathax's : or. of Nathax. Plural, A'b?^., O^;'.. and 
Yoc. Xathaxs : Poss., Xathaxs'; or, of Nathaxs. 

Note. Proper names are seldom used in the plural: hence, in de- 
clining a proper Noun, its plural form may be omitted. The assertion, 
"Proper nouns want the Plural," cannot be sustained. 

David is a second object proper vs'ordnoun, or a second object noun; 

■ gender. person, number, case. Peixtiple. David 

has the objective case ; because, it is an English second object Noun. 
Hence. Eule XL, "An object noun (in the English language) must 
have tjie Objective Case." 

It is declined; Singular, JN'b/7i., David; Ooj., David (Here!); etc. 

Tliou art the man is a first object common clause Noun, or a first ob- 
ject clause Noun; gender. person, number, case. 

Prixciple. It has the nominative case ; because, etc. 

Man is a subject common word Noun, or a subject Noun ; masc, 
third, sing., nominative. Prixciple. Man has the nominative, instead 
of the objective case; because, it is the subject Noun in a first object 
clause, which is quoted ; Rule XY. 

6. ' Thou^ is"^ a^ simple^ personator\" 

7. Ladies, in the sentence, ''The ladies are here," is a sub- 
ject common word noun. 

8. Do you always parse the word, themselves, as a compound 
personator ? If so. how do you parse I? 



ANALYSES OF THE NOUK 



221 




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w 

H 
O 



016 



A a 














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IS 


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c 





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N 


GO 


c 


fl d 


C3 


c3 


c3 


e3 


c3 


c5 




eg 

id 






bll 

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222 



PQ 



THE GRAMMAE OF LANGUAGE. 



[ Mascnli 
Feminii 

^ Neuter 


' First 

Second 
' Tliird 




1 


: Nomina 
Objecti 
Possess 










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JZi 


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o S 

§ I 

•-I I— 1 Ph rjg " '^ 

o § I ^g 



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PRONOUNS — DEFINITIONS. 223 

PronoTins. 

Personators. 

89. The science of the Pronoun includes ; first^ the 
Definitions ; second^ the Classification ; third^ the At- 
tributes, and the Means of knowing them ; fourth^ 
the Declension ; and fifth^ the Syntax of the Pronoun. 

!The word, pronoun,^ means 
for, or instead of a noun. 
A Pronoun is a luord^ 
which ^ in a sentence^ has the use or office of a ^ersonator. 

Note I. That, which is called the Antecedent of the Personator, in 
Grrammar is called the Antecedent of the Pronoun or "the Noun for 
which the Pronoun stands." 

Examples. 

1. Squire Blade, said Furgus, may /call your attention to 
my stor}^ ? You see, Squire, this man has done me a great 
wroDg ; because, he has taken away his team which / had 
for their keeping, and has given the care of them to another 
man. 

Grammatical Analysis. J is a "pronoun; because, in this sentence, 
it has the use or office of a personator. It personates the subject, 
Furgus. 

Note II. Under Personators, we have shown that the Personator 
is artificial in its origin, and is to be used either for convenience, or for 
euphony, or for both ; and, that, when neither of these is to be gained, 
the Personator should not be used. What was said of the Personator 
Is, of course, true of the Pronoun. 

2. It is good and comely for one to eat and to drink and 

to enjoy the good of all his labor. For one to eat and for 

one to drink and for one to enjoy the good of all his labor is 

good, and for one to eat and for one to drink, etc., is comely. 

Parsing. It is a pronoun ; because, in this sentence, it has the use 
or office of a personator, and personates the compound contracted 
clause, for one to eat and for one to drink, etc. 

1 Peonoun. noun., • (see noun) ; pro^ for, instead ot 



224 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

The Classification of Pronouns. 

91. Second, the Classification. Pronouns, accord- 
ing to their formation, are Simple, and Compound, 

Note I. That class of words, which the grammarians caU ^''Adjective 
Pronouns,''^ is not given in this Work; because, no word, which at the 
same time is an adjunct and a personator, can be found in a sentence. 

03. ^ Simple Pronoun is a simple personator ; or, is a 
Pronoun wliose immediate element is a simple word. 

Examples. 

1. Zand my brother came together; that is, He came with 
me and / came with Mm. 

Parsing. / is a simple Pronoun ; because, it is a simple personator. 

2. Ah ! could /hide me in my song. 

3. I and my brother have been to visit our parents. Tv'e 
found them expecting us, as they had received my letter in 
due time. 

4. I have paid for mj books j hence, thev are mine. 

5. When qur hatred is violent, it sinks us beneath the 
level of the brutes. 

Note II. li, as a Pronoun, maybe used in four ways; namely, first^ 
ordinarily ; second, Inceptively ; third. Eoipletively ; and fourth, Vaguely. 

■ 6. Ordinarily. Susan found my book and gave it to me. 

7. Inceptively. It is sweet to hear the honest watch-dog's 
bark bay deep-mouthed welcome. 

8. Expletively. Come, sirs ; fight it out. 

9. Vaguely. It is very hot. It is very cold. It rains. 
It snows. 

93. J. Compound Pronoun is a compound personator ; or, 
is a Pronoun whose immediate elements are a simple pronoun, 
and one of the suffixes, self, selves, own. 

Note III. In spoken language, self selves, and own are used as suf- 
fixes ; while, in written language^ self and selves are used as suffixes, 
and own is written separately. There is no reason for this distinction ; 
hence, in this Work, own is sometimes used as a suffix. 



ATTRIBUTES OF PRONOUNS. 225 

10. I, myself^ am here ; as we, ourselves, can testify. 

Parsing, My self \^ a compound Pronoun ; because, it is a compound 
personator; or, because its immediate elements are the simple Pro- 
noun, m?/, and the suffix, self. 

94. Compound Pronouns are used in two ways ; In- 

tensively^ and Reflexively, 

Lit. Def. The word, intensively^'^ means like that which presses in 
against, 

95. A Compound Pronoun is used Intensively, when it is 
used to give force to an antecedent noun^ or pronoun. 

11. Intensively. Lawyer. "Did you say that you, your- 
self have known the plaintiff, himself and the defendants, 
themselves^ for years ? 

Witness. '^ Yes I I, myself have known the plaintiff, him- 
self and the defendants, themselves^ for years." 

Lit. Def. The word, reflexively,^ means as ifhent lack. 

96. A Compound Pronoun is used Reflexively, i^AeTi it 
is used to recall its antecedent. 

12. Reflexively. My son, if thou claimest justice for thy- 
self be sure that thou doest that justly, which others claim 
for themselves. 

The Attributes of Pronouns. 

97. Thirds the Attributes, and the Means of Know- 
ing them. Pronouns have four rhetorical Attributes, 
by which they show the Gender^ Person^ Nuviber^ and 
Case of their nouns or antecedents. 

Genders of Pronouns. 

98. The Gender of a Pronoun is a rhetorical attribute, 
given to a Pronoun of the third person, singular number, to show 
the gender of its noun or antecedent. 

Note I. A Pronoun is seldom found in any language which has any 
means of showing the Gender of its noun ; hence, the Englisli Pro- 

1 Intensively, si'oely^ ; ten^ hold, stretch, keep; in, into, against. 

^ Reflexively. ively^ \flex = yiec^ bent, turn; re, back. 

10* 



226 THE GKA^IMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

noun, in the third person, singular number, becomes remarkable for 
the possession of this attribute or property. 

Masculine Gender of Pronouns. 
Means of Knowing the G-enders of Pronouns, 
99. The Afasculine Grender of a nonn is shown by 
using, as its Pronoun, one of the words, Ae, A^??^, his^ 
himself hisovjii. 

Examples. 

1. Your son is here. He has with him his portfolio, and 

quite delights himself hj hisoion skill. 

Parsing. He is a simple Pronoun. Re has the rhetorical attribute^ 
masculine G-ender ; because, it shows that its noun, son, has the mascu- 
line Gender. 

Feminine Gender of Pronouns. 

1©©. The Feminine Gender of a noun is shown by 

using, as its Pronoun, one of the words, she^ lier^ hers^ 

herself her own. 

2. Your daughter is here. She has with her a friend of 

hers, who thinks more of herself than heroivn relatives think 

of her. 

Parsing. She is . She has the rhetorical attribute, ferainine 

Gender ; because, it shows that its antecedent, daughter, has the fem- 
inine gender. 

XoTE II. Sometimes, the words, he, etc., she, etc., are used to per- 
sonate nouns having the Neuter Gender. (See Chap. Y., Figurative 
Lang., Personification^ 

3. The sun is up. How brightly he shines \ 

4. The full orbed moon gives her silver}^ light. 

5. The Wind, in his wrath, is blowing a hurricane. 

6. Old Winter is going with his wig of snow, which sets 
but loosely upon him. 

Neuter Gender of Pronouns. 
1©1. The Neuter Gender of a noun, is shown by 
using, as its Pronoun, one of the words, it, its., itself 
itsown. Formerlv his was used instead of its. 



PERSONS OF PRONOUNS. 227 

7. He, who built that house, has made it too high for its 
length ; hence, the house, itself^ has a style peculiarly itsown. 

Parsing. It is . It has the rhetorical attribute, neuter G-ender ; 

because, it shows that its noun, house, has the neuter gender. 

8. Look not thou on the wine, when it is red, when it 
giveth Jus [its] color, etc. 

In this example, Ms shows the neuter Gender of its noun, wine; 
because, formerly, his was used instead of its. 

Note III. It is frequentlj^ used to personate a noun which has the 
Common G-ender. 

9. See that dear little child. How pretty it looks I 

10. Here is a fly. It is a very little one. 

11. The rose bush is stripped of its leaves. 

Persons of Pwnouns, 

] 03. Person is a rhetorical attribute^ hy which the Pro- 
noun shows the person of its noun. 

Note I. No word can be used as a Pronoun unless it shows the 
Person of its noun. Hence, an " Adjective Pronoun " cannot possibly 
exist in any language. 

Means of Knowing the Persons of Pronoims. 
First Person of Pronouns. 

103. The First Person of a noun is shown by using, 
as its Pronoun, one of the following words ; /, me, my^ 
mine^ Tuyself rayown^ raineown^ we^ uSj our, ours, ourselves, 
ourown. 

Examples. 

1. Ah! could 7 hide me in my song. He is a friend of 

mine. 

Parsing. / is a simple Pronoun, and does not show gender ; it has 
the rhetorical attribute, first Person, because it shows that its noun, the 
name of the narrator, has the first person. 

2. I, Paul, myself write these things. 

3. We have the ticket for ourselves in ourown hands. 

4. I, the Psalmist, communed with mine own heart. 



228 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Second Person of Pronouns. 

1©4. The Second Person of a noun is sliown by 
using, as its Pronoun, one of the words ; thou^ thee^ thy, 
thine^ thyself thyown^ thineown, yourself ye^ you^ your^ 
yours^ yourselves^ yourown. 

5. Thou shalt guide me with thy connsel, and I will ohsj 
thee. Yet the glory be thine. 

Parsing. Thou is a . Thou has the rhetorical attribute, second 

Person ; because, it shows that its noun, the name of the riarratee, has 
the second person. 

6. Ye, yourselves, shall see your own cities laid waste, and 
your sons and your daughters led away captives. 

Third. Person of Pronouns. 

105. The Third Person of a noun is shown by 
"using, as its Pronoun, one of the words ; Ae, him^ his., 
himself hisown., she^ her., hers., herself herown,^ it., its^ itself 
itsoivn^ they^ them^ their^ theirs.^ themselves^ ilieirown. 

7. He and she have tasks before them^ of their own choosing. 

Parsing. He is a simple Pronoun, mascuHne gender, third Person. 
He has the third Person, because it shows that its noun (understood) 
has the third person. 

The Number of Pronouns. 

1 06. The NuMBEE of a Pronoun is a rhetorical attrihute^ 
hy which the Pronoun shows the nuraher of its noun. 

Means of Knowing the Number of Pronouns. 
Singular Number of Pronouns. 

107. The Singular Number of a noun is shown by 
using, as its Pronoun, one of the words ; Tj me, ray., 
mine^ myself my oivn., mine oivn^ thou., thee., thy^ thine., 
thyself thineown^ /z6, him^ his^ himself hisown., she., her^ hers^ 
herself herown., it., its., itself itsown. 



NUMBERS OF PRONOUlSrS. 229 

Examples. 

1. ij Vi^yself^ saw these things, as tliou^ thyself^ also, didst. 

Parsing. / is a simple Pronoun; it has no gender, first person, 
singular Number. / has the rhetorical attribute, singular Number, 
because it shows that its noun, the name of the narrator., has the sin- 
gular number. 

2. When Csesar, himself^ cometh, he shall tell thee all thou 
desirest to know. 

Parsing. Rimselfisa compound Pronoun; mas. gen., third per., 
singular Number. Himself has the singular Number, because, etc. 

3. The woman believed herself to be in the right, there- 
fore she adhered to her principles. 

Plural Numler of Pronouns, 

108. The Plural Number of a noun is shown by 
using as its Pronoun, one of the words ; we^ us^ our., 
ours^ ourselves., ourown^ ye., you., your., yours., yourselves., 
youroivn., they., them., their., theirs., themselves., theirown, 

4. The people shouted, " We^ ourselves^ do know, as you^ 
yourselves^ can testify." 

Parsing. We is a simple Pronoun; shows no gender, first per., 
plural Number. We has the rhetorical attribute, plural Number, be- 
cause it shows that its noun, people^ has the plural jiumber. 

Note I. Sometimes, the Plural Forms, we, us, our, ours, are used 
instead of the Singular Forms, me, my, mine; and in like manner, the 
Plural Forms, you, your, yours, are used instead of the Singular Forms, 
thou, thee, thy, thine. When these Forms are so used, they are gram- 
matically Plural, while, logically, they are Singular in Number. That 
is, they are Plural in Form, and Singular in thought. (See Chap. Y., 
Figurative Lang., Communication.) 

Cases of Pronouns. 

109. The Case of a Pronoun is a rhetorical attribute^ hy 
which the Pronoun shows the case of its noun. 



230 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Means of Knowing the Cases of Pronouns. 

11®. The Pronoun shows that its noun has the 
Nominative Case, when it is one of the words ; /, ihou^ 
he^ she^ ye^ we. 

Examples. 

1. Am J your teacher? T'Aow art my teacher. You are. 
Hast thou^ thyself said this ? I, myself, have said it. Are 
ye all here ? We are all here. 

Parsing. / is a simple Pronoun, no gender, first per., sing, num., 
nominative Case. / has the rhetorical attribute, nominati'i^e Case, be- 
cause it shows that its noun, teacher^ has the nominative case. 

Ohjective Case. 

111. The Pronoun shows that its noun has the 
Ohjective Case, when it is one of the words ; me.^ thee^ 
him J us, 

2. Did you call me, before I came to thee f Can you find 
him ? I desired them to come to me. 

Possessive Case, 

lis. The Pronoun shows that its noun has the 
Possessive Case, when it is one of the words ; my, mme, 
nfiyown^ mineown., thy^ thine^ thyown^ thineown^ his^ hisown^ 
hers^ heroion^ its, itsotvn, our, ours, ouroiun, your, yours, 
your own, their, theirs, their own. 

3. My books and thy books are in this desk. His and hers 
are in that desk, and theirs are on the table. 

Parsing. My is a simple Pronoun ; no gender, first per., sing, 
num., possessive Case. My has the possessive Case, because its noun, 
the name of the narrator^ has this property. 

M.5 is a simple Pronoun ; masc, third, sing., possessive Case. His 
has the possessive Case ; because, etc. 

4. Dost thou know the difference between thy hat and 
mine ? If this hat be thine, then this is mine. 



MEANS OF KNOWING CASES. 231 

Note I. After the Possessive Forms, mine and thine^ except in sol- 
emn and in impassioned address, and also after hers^ ours^ yours^ and 
theirs^ the nouns limited are usually understood. His may be used 
both ways ; as, — 

5. Is charity more a duty of mine^ than of yours^ or ofhisf 

Note II. Formerly, mine and ikine were used before words, begin- 
ning with a vowel sound ; they are so used now in a solemn and in 
impassioned address, and by the poets ; as, — 

6. Touch not mine anointed, and do my prophets no harm. 

7. That I may rejoice in the gladness of thy nation; that I 
may glory with thine inheritance. 

8. Thou hast called me thine angel in moments of bliss, 
Still thine angel Til be 'mid the horrors of this. 

9. "But 'tis not so above; there is no shuffling ; there 
the action lies in his [its] true nature." 

Note III. Rer is used in the Objective and, also, in the Possessive 
Case ; hence, it does not distinguish these Cases. 

] 0. I let her take her books home with her. 

Note IY. Compound Pronouns do not distinguish between the 
Nominative and Objective Cases ; because, they are formed as follows ; 
Compound Pronouns of the first and second persons, and also, of the 
third person of the Possessive Case, are formed by adding the suffixes, 
self, selves, own, to a Possessive Case of the Simple Pronouns; while, 
Compound Pronouns of the third person form the Nominative and 
Objective Case by adding these suffixes to an Objective Case of the 
Simple Pronouns. 

Myself, myown, mineown, ourselves, ourown, thyself, thyown, 
thineown, yourself, yourselves, yourown, hisown, herown, itsown, 
theirown, himself, herself, itself, themselves. 

Note Y. When the Pronoun does not show an attribute of its noun, 
the Pronoun itself cannot properly be said to have that attribute be- 
cause the attributes of Pronouns are rhetorical attributes. 

Declension of Pronouns. 

113. Fourth, the Declension. The Declension of the 
Pronoun is a moile of showing its Attrihutes^ and the Means hy 
which they are known. 



232 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE, 

TABLES. 

First Persons of Simple Pronouns. 
Nominative. Objective, Possessive. 

Singular ; I me mj, mine, or of me. 

Plural; "We us - our, ours, or of us. 

First Persons of Compound Pronouns. 
Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Singular; Myself myself myown, mineown, or 

of myself. 
Plural; Ourselves ourselves ourown, or of ourselves. 

Examples. 

1. Narrator, /have before me a part of my "books. A part 
of mine may be a part of me. 

2. Narrators. We have before us a part of our books. A 
part of ours may be a part of us. 

3. Narrator. I, myself, have before myself 2i part of my own 
books, or a part of mine own books. A part of my own^ or 
a part of mine own may be- a part of myself. 

4. Narrators. We, ourselves, have before ourselves a part of 
our own books. A part of our own may be a part of our- 
selves. 

Second Persons of Simple Pronouns. 



Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Thou thee thy, thine, or of thee. 

You you your, yours, or of you. 

Plural; You, ye you your, yours, or of you. 



Singular; \ 



Second Persons of Compound Pronouns. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

^. 2 . \ Thyself thyself thine own, or of thyself. 

tnguar, | Yourself yourself your own, or of yourself. 
Plural; Yourselves yourselves your own, or 

of yourselves. 



TABLES OF PRONOUNS. 



233 



5. Narratee. Thou hast before thee a part of thy books. A 
part of thine may be a part of thee; or, 

6. Narratee. You have before you a part of your books. 
A part of yours maj be a part of you. 

7. Narratees. Ye or you have before you a part of your 
books. A part of yours may be a part of you. 

8. Narratee. Thou, thyself^ hast before thyself a part of thy 
own, or a paxt of thine own books. A part of thine own may 
be part of thyself; or, 

9. Narratee. You, yourself have before yourself a part of 
your own books. A part of your own may b» a part of yourself 

10. Narratees. Ye or you, yot6r5eZ2;es, have before yourselves 
a part of ^/owr oz(;7i books. A part of your own may be a part 
of yourselves. 

Third Persons of Simple Pronouns. 





Nom. 


Obj. 


Possessive. 


Sing. , 


; Masculine. He 


him 


his, or of him. 


Sing. J 


; Feminine. She 


her 


her, hers, or of her* 


Sing, . 


,• l^euter. It 


it 


its, or of it. 



Plural Number ; They them their, theirs, or of them. 



Third Persons of Compound Pronouns. 







Nominative. 


Objective. 


Possessive. 


Sing. 


; Mase. 


Himself 


himself 


hisown, of himself. 


Sing. 


; Fern. 


Herself 


herself 


herown, of herself. 


Sing. 


; ^evLt. 


Itself 


itself 


itsown, of itself. 


Plur. 


Numb. ; 


Themselves 


themselves 


theirown, of them- 
selves. 



11. Narration^ about a Boy. He has before him a part of 
his books. A part of his may be a part of him. 

12. Narration^ about a Girl. * She has before her a part of 
her books. A part of hers may be a part of her. 

13. Narration, about a Book. It has in it a part of its leaves. 
A part of its leaves may be a part of it 

14. Narration, about Boys and Girls. They have before 



234 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

them a part of their books. A part of theirs may be a part of 
them. 

15. Narration^ about Books. They have in them parts of 
their leaves. A part of theirs may be a part of them. 

16. iV., about a Boy. He, himself.^ has before himself 2^ part 
of his own books. A part of his own may be a part of himself. 

17. iV., about a Girl. She, herself has before herself 2. part 
of Aer ot^n books. A part of her own may be a part of herself 

18. iV., aZ)02^?^ a ^oo^. The book, itself has in itself a part 
^ of its own leaves. A part of itsown may be a part of itself 

19. i\^., about J^oys and Girls. They, themselves^ have be- 
fore themselves a part of ^Aefr oi^ti books. A part of their own 
may be a part of themselves, 

20. A"., a5ow2? Boohs. The books, themselves^ have in ^/^em- 
5eZ^65 parts of their own leaves. A part of their own may be 
a part of themselves. 

The Syntax of Pronouns. 

114. Sixthj the Syntax of Pronouns. 

Rules for Position. 

W5. Rule I. The pronoun must stand in the place of its 
antecedent or noun, which it personates. 

116. Rule II. When both the pronoun and its antecedent 
are expressed, the antecedent must he considered as explanatory 
of the pronoun, and therefore in apposition with the pronoun. 

Examples. 

1. He, the witness, had not seen her, the woman, since the 

transaction. 

Parsing. Witness is a subj. prop, word noun ; masc, third, sing., 
nom. Witness has the nominative case, because it is an antecedent 
noun used with its own pronoun. 

117. Rule III. A compound pronoun must follow the 
noun, or the simple pronoun with which it is used, except it be in 
the possessive case. 

2. I, Paul, myself write these things with mineown hands. 



SYNTAX OF PKONOUNS. 235 

Rules for Attributes, 

118. Rule IV. A pronoun^ as far as its modifications 
permit^ must show the Gender^ Person^ Numher^ and Case of its 
antecedent or noun^ which it personates. 

119. Rule V. A pronoun^ which is used to personate two 
or more nouns, must take the Plural form or modification. 

3. Julia and Anna sing very sweetlj, and they deserve 
much praise for their perseverance while learning. 

4. The boj put my hat here, and your hat there ; but, why 
he placed them so, I do not know. 

1 30. Rule YI. A pronoun, which personates a noun 
used figuratively must show the attributes belonging to the noun 
in its figurative sense, 

5. I saw the moon in the sky leading her virgin host. 

131. Rule YII. When its antecedent has a distributive 
adjunct, the pronoun must show the Singular Number. 

6. We, George the Third, King of Great Britain, do here- 
by enjoin upon our subjects, the necessity of being truly 
loyal, etc. 

7. Every man should think that he is responsible for his 
own actions. 

8. They gave to each woman, as much food as her family 
needed. 

Note I. If the noun personated have the common gender and a 
distributive adjunct, it may be personated by he ; although, many use 
"/ie, or slie.''^ Many use the personator, they; this in the English, is 
always a gross error. In many other languages, as, the Latin, Greek, 
etc., it is correct. 

9. Grant to every person in this house that he may be in 
the spirit. Grant to every person in this presence that she, 
or he may be in the spirit. 

Error. G-rant to every person in this house, that they may be in 
the spirit. 



236 THE GKAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Analysis of the Pronoun. 



1. When® John^ comes^, we'- will take^^ a* ride'. He^ 
may ride'^ the' black', you" may ride^^ the** white^ and' I' 
will ride'^P the' grey' horse^ 

General Analysis^ Logical and Rhetorical 

T. 8 



S( + )FS 



T. E S t, E S t, + F S T. Translate, 



Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. We is a simple pronoun. By 
its form, it shows the first person, plural number, nominative case, of 
its antecedent subject noun, which is the name of the narrators. Prin- 
ciple. We shows these attributes of its antecedent noun ; because, a 
pronoun, by its form, must show the person, number, and case of its 
antecedent. Hence, Rule IY. It is declined; Sing., iVbm., I; Olj.y 
me; Poss.^ my, mine, of me. Plural, Nom.^ we (Here I); 0&/., us; 

POSS., OUR, OURS, OF US. 

2. The people prostrated themselves before him. 

Special Analysis. Themselves, logically, is the receiver or Third 
primary idea; it is used, rhetorically, to personate the first object^ 
people; therefore, themselves, grammatically, is a Pronoun. It is a 
compound Pronoun ; by its form, it shows the third person, plural 
number of its antecedent noun, people ; according to Rale IY. It is 
declined; Sing., JSfom., Obj., Voc, himself, herself; Poss., hisown^ 

HEROWN, OF himself, OF HERSELF. Plural, NoiU., THEMSELVES ; C%'., 

themselves (Herel); Pass., theirown, of themselves. 



ANALYSES OF THE PEONOUN. 



237 









I 







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238 



THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



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ADJECTIVES.. 239 



Adjectives. 

122„ Tlie Science of the Adjective includes; firsts 
the Definitions; second^ the Classifications; thirds the 
Attributes, and the Means of knowing them ; fourth^ the 
Declension and Oomparison ; and fifih^ the Syntax of 
the Adjective. 

!The word, adjective,'^ means 
that which is placed near. 
An Adjective is a 
wordj a phrase, or a clause, which is used, in a sentence, as an 
adjunct of a noun. 

Note I. Adjectives are sometimes called Ad/nouns, which is a very 
convenient, andjp. better term than Adjective. 

Examples. 

1. Large buildings are now standing where that grove once 

stood. 

Grammatical Analysis. Large is an adjective ; because, it is used as 
an adjunct of the noun, buildings. 

Tliat is an adjective ; because, it is an adjunct of the noun, grove. 

2. The rosy^fingered Morn, mother of dews, opes wide the 
pearly gates of day. 

Parsing. Rosy-fingered is a phrase adjective ; because, it is a phrase, 
iised as an adjunct of the noun, Morn. 

The Classifications. 

134. Second, the Classifications. Adjectives are 
classified according to two bases ; Jirst, according to their 
signification; second, according to the relation between 
their ideals and the ideals of their nouns. 

1 Adjective, twe^ ; jec=^jac^ put, placed, thrown ; ad, near, at. See adja- 

cent. 



24:0 THE GRAMMAR OF LAKaUAaE. 

125. First Classification. According to significa- 
tion^ Adjectives are Prober ^ and Common. 

Proper Adjectives, 

1 36. A Peoper Adjective is an adjunct^ which distinguishes 
a class or kind named hy a noun^ from all other classes or kinds 
named hy that noun. 

Examples. 

1. The Spanish people, or the Spanish, live in Spain. 

Parsing. Spanish is a proper Adjective ; because, it is an adjunct 
that distinguishes one class of people from all other classes of people. 

2. The American people are mostly descendants from the 
English^ Scotch^ Iris\ and German. 

3. The Ciceronian stjde of eloquence has maqj admirers. 

4. John has read of Platonic love, and Socratic wisdom. 

5. The Hungarian nation was overpowered by the Russian 
and the Austrian nations. 

6. The inhabitants of Sweden are called the Swedish peo- 
ple or the Swedes. 

7. The Danish people or the Danes live in Denmark. 

8. When you are ta Rome, do as the Romans or as the 
Roman people do. 

9. European, Asiatic, African, and American productions 
are articles of commerce. 

Common Adjectives. 

13T. A Common Adjective is an adjunct^ which names a 
property helonging to each individual in a class, or to each of the 
different classes^ etc. 

Note I. The distinction between the Proper and the Common Ad- 
jective is the same as that between the Proper and the Common Noun. 
Both showing the distinction between a certain individual, and all other 
individuals of the same kind. The Noun does this by naming an es- 
sence, a substance, or an abstract property ; the Adjective by naming 
a concrete property. 



DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 241 

10. A single heroic act has gained for that hrave girl a last- 

ing faw.e. 

Parsing. J. is a common Adjective; because, it is an adjunct 
which names a property belonging to each individual, act^ and to the 
whole class, ads^ 

138. Second Classification. According to the rela- 
tion hetioeen their ideals and the ideals of their nouns .^ Adjec- 
tives are Descriptive^ and Designaiive, 

Descriptive Adjectives . 

Lit. Dip. The word, descriptive^^ means like that which pictures an 
object. 

139. A Descriptive Adjective names a subordinate idea^ 
which has either a natural^ or an artificial relation to its princi- 
pal ; or^ a subordinate idea of the quantity, quality, posi- 
tion, DURATION, FORM, etc.^ of that which the noun names, 
(See Chap. II., 1 5., and Chap. III., Phrases,) 

Examples. 

1. Quantity. Too much time is given to smallj and too 

little time is given to great things. 

Grammatical Analysis. Much is a descriptive common Adjective, be- 
longing to time. It is descriptive^ because it names a subordinate idea, 
having a natural relation to its principal, time; or, it is descriptive^ be- 
cause it names an idea of quantity. 

2. The (iay- spring awoke the morning call. 

Parsing. Bay is a descriptive common Adjective, adjunct of spring. 
It is descriptive^ because it names a subordinate idea, having an artifi- 
cial relation to its principal, spring ; or, because it names an idea of du- 
ration. 

3. ^^ Much study is a weariness of the flesh. Let us hear 
the conclusion of the whole matter." 

4. Quality. Evil deeds cause painful emotions in a good 
man's soul. 

1 Descriptive. U'oe, ; scrip = scrih •= scriv ^ graph, pictures, paints, draws • 

de, of. from. See scripture, scribble^ scrivner, etc This root was evidently first 
used when paintings, or drawings, were the mode of recording ideas, or thoughts ; 
and, before these had come to be mere line;S, as in the more modern hieroglyphicG, 
aad alphabets or delineations. 

11 



242 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

5. ''And, with some siueet^ ohlivious antidote." 

6. Should a gothic cottage be surrounded by a wooden^ by 
a stone^ or by an iron fence ? 

7. Position. An inclined line is neither a horizontal^ nor 
a vertical line. 

8. Parallel lines are equally distant at all corresponding 
points. 

9. The Western part of Massachusetts joins the Eastern 
part of New York. The former ^ is one of the Eastern /v, and 
the Za^^er ^s one of the Middle States. 

10. Every place is south of the North pole. 

11. Duration. ^^ Eternal life, and endless bliss are theirs." 

12. Very many daily ^ semi-weekly^ and weekly papers, and 
also many monthly^ and quarterly periodicals are published. 

13. Form. Oval and elliptical figures resemble circular 
figures. 

14. The spreading trees and winding streams of a mountain- 
ous country form a diversified landscape. 

130. Descriptive Adjectives of quantity are divided 

into two kinds; Definite Adjectives of Quantity or Nu- 

meral Adjectives, and Indefi^nite Adjectives. 

Lit. Def. The word, definite^'^ means according to some limit. 
The word, numeral,'^ means belonging to a number. 

131. Definite Adjectives of Quantity or Numeeal Ad- 
jectives are adjuncts^ showing how many values are meant ; and^ 
also^ which one of several values is meant. 

133. Definite Adjectives of Quantity or Numeral 
Adjectives are divided into four kinds ; Cardinal^ Ordi- 
nal^ Multiplicative^ and Distributive. 

Lit. Def. The word, cardinal,^ means belonging to the chief. • 

1.33. Numeral Adjectives of the Cardinal kind are used 
in counting or in finding how many values are meant. 

1 Definite, ite, ; fin, fence, limit, bound; de, according to, out, round. 

2 Numeral, al, belonging to ; er, one who, that which; num^ tells how many, 
or which one. See Nouns, Number ; also, Arith., No. III. 

3 Cardinal, al^ ; carditis chief, ppncipal. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 243 

15. One atom of water contains one atom of oxygen and 

one atom of hydrogen ; so that, nme pounds of water contain 

one pound of hydrogen and eight pounds of oxygen. 

• Parsing. One is a descriptive Adjective, showing quantity definite, 
or is a numeral Adjective of the cardinal kind. It is a numeral Ad- 
jective, because it shows quantity definite. It is a cardinal Adjective, 
because it is an adjective used in counting or in finding how many 
values are meant. 

Note L A or an (one) when used as a Cardinal Adjective, is used 
to restrict the meaning of a noun to one of the kind signified by the 
noun, but to no particular one, and so prevent the noun from being 
taken in a general sense; thus, man mourns, means that all men 
mourn; but, a man mourns, asserts that any one man mourns. A or an 
are considered as one and the same word, and by some are called the 
Indefinite Article. (See Theory of Articles, 140.) 

Lit. Def. The word, ordinal,^ means belonging to a row or rank. 

1 84. Numeral Adjectives of the Ordinal kind are used in 
numbering or in finding which one of several values is meant, 

16. Read the j^?'^ second, and third examples. 

Parsing. First is a numeral Adjective of the ordinal kind ; because, 
it shows which one of several examples, taken in a certain order, is 
meant. 

Lit. Def. The word, multiplicative^ means like that which folds many 
[times]. 

1 33. Numeral Adjectives of the Multiplicatiye kind are 
those used when objects are taken in groups or sets. 

1 7. A onefold carpet is a one-ply carpet. A two-ply car- 
pet is a double carpet, or a twofold carpet. A three-ply 
is a three-fold or triple carpet. 

Note II. The student should be exercised in the Numerals until the 
distinction between the cardinal and the ordinal becomes perfectly fa- 
mihar. For example, let him be directed to count certain objects; 
then to number them. 

Lit. Def, The word, distributive,^ means like that which gives in 



* Ordinal, al, — — ; ordin, row, rank, line. 

2 Multiplicative. {a)ti've, ; plic =:=plex, folded; multi, many, often. See 

single, double, simple ; also, Arith., MuUipUcation. 

' DisTRiBiTTivE. Hv^^ ; tHbu^ gives • dis^ apart. See attribute. 



244 THE GRAMMAR OF LAIS^GUAGE. 

136. Numeral Adjectives of the Distributive kind are 
those ichich represent a collection of objects taken in sets or groups. 

18. The books were taken one hy one. The students left 
the schoolroom in pairs or two by two. 

is'OTE III. Numeral Adjectives of the Cardinal and Ordinal kinds 
are frequently called Numbers. There is one way onlj in which a 
Cardinal Number can be spoken, and but one way in which an Ordinal 

Xumber can be spoken. 

IS?'. Numeral Adjectiyes of the Cardinal and 
Ordinal kinds may be written in three ways ; namely, 
in Words^ in Letters or Roman Characters, and in Figures 
or Arahic Characters. (See Arith. Numeration,) 

19. Word Numlers^ Cardinal, 

Kone, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine. 
Ten elev'n tw'lye, thirf n, fourt'n, fifteen, sixfn, sevent'n, eight'n, nineteen, 

20. Word Nwnhers, Ordinal. 

Kaught, first, second, thkd, fourth, fifth, sixth, seyenth, eighth, ninth. 

Tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, etc. 

21. Letter Number s,^ or Roman Characters^ Cardinal and 

Ordinal. 

Naught, L, II., in., lY., Y., Yi., Yn., Yin., ix. 

X., XI., XIL, Xin., XIY., XY., XYL, XYn., XYIII., XIX. 

22. Figure Numbers or Arabic Characters, Cardinal and 

Ordinal. 

O, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 

lO, M, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. 

Lit. Def. The word, indefinite,^ means not according to any limit. 

138. An Indefinite Adjective of Quantity names an idea 
of value without telling how many, which one, or how much, is 
meant. 

23. Quantity Indefinite. At the large Fairs, we usually see 
many things, which are hetter than the ordinary kinds. The 

1 Indefinite, definite^ ; m, not. 



DESIGNATIVE ADJECTIVES. 245 

largest fruits and vegetables, the heaviest fleeces, and the 
swiftest horses are exhibited. Statements of the greatest 
yields per acre are made. Frequently, also, onuch skill is 
shown in producing furrows of an average width and depth, 
since neither the deepest^ nor the widest are always the best. 
Very often, several young ladies ride long races over widely 
extended courses, without any apparent fear of the many dan- 
gers, which surround them ; and, because so few accidents 
do happen, some think there is really no danger ; others, that 
the increased excitement affords an abundant security by 
causing all to use more skill and caution. 

Note IY. As far as all includes every individual in a number or 
collection, it may be considered as showing a Definite rather than an 
Indefinite quantity ; but as far as it does not mean any particular num- 
ber, it may be considered as Indefinite. 

Note Y. A Descriptive Adjective, meaning a part of what is named 
by the noun following it, is said to be used Partitively^ or to be a Par- 
tive ; as, some of our money ; that is, some money of our money ; one 
of the boys, one boy of the boys. 

Designative Adjectives. 
Lit. Def. The word, designative^^ means like that which points out. 

139. A Designative Adjective is an adjunct, naming a 
subordinate idea, having an incidental relation to its principal ; 
or, a subordinate idea of place, order, relation, etc., belong- 
ing to the idea named by the noun. (See Chap. II., 15.) 

Note YL Designative Adjectives are frequently called Designatives. 

Note YII. The principal word of a Designative Adjective is some- 
times called its Subsequent or Consequent ; while, the same word used 
in another clause is called the Antecedent of the Designative. 

24. That gentleman told the lady to look at those trees, 
which [trees] were once growing in the same spot, on which 
[spot] they were then standing. 

Parsing. That is a designative Adjective ; because, it names a sub- 
ordinate idea having an incidental relation to the noun, man ; or, be- 

1 Designative. {a)Pi've, ; sign, mark, note ; do, out, from. See 

tign, design, etc. 



246 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

cause, it directs attention to the position or place of the idea named by 
the noun, man. 

IJie is a designative Adjective; because, it names a subordinate idea, 
having an incidental relation to the idea, lady ; or, because, it calls 
attention to the idea named in the noun, lady. 

Note YIII. T/ie, when used as a Designative, requires either that 
its consequent, or that an adjunct of its consequent, should be ex- 
pressed ; hence, it is often called " The Definite Articled (See Theory 
of the Article, 146.) 

140. Designative Adjectives are used in five ways ; 
Definitely or Demonstratively^ Relatively^ Interrogatively^ 
Distrihutively^ and Correlatively. 

Adjectives used Definitely or Demonstratively. 

^. Lit. Def. The word, demonstratively,'^ means like that which points 
out something. 

141. A Designative is used Definitely or Demonstea- 

TIYELY v^lien its C07isequent is expressed. 

25. The fruit of this tree is in these baskets; the fruit of 
that tree is in those baskets. 

Parsing. The is a designative Adjective of fruit It is used definitely 
or demonstratively ; because, its principal or subsequent, fruit, is ex- 
pressed. 

Note IX. Since the, as a Designative, always requires either that its 
consequent, or that an adjunct of its consequent should be expressed, 
it foUows that, as a Designative, the is always used Definitely or De- 
monstratively. In this respect, the agrees with a or an, and every. 

26. I know which book was taken. Co^itracted. 
Uncontracted form. I know the look which book was taken. 

27. I do not know the person who sent you the present. I 
do not know^ w^ho sent you this present. 

28. What money we had was taken away. Contracted, 

Uncontro.cted form. That money, or all the money, which money we 
had, was taken away. 

1 Demonsteatitely. ati'cely, in a manner like that wMch ; monstr, showaj 
points, explains ; de, out, concerning. 



DESIGNATIVE ADJECTIVES. 247 

29. We do not know what course we ought to take. 
We do not know that course^ luhich course we ought to take. 

30. Richard shall have that time, which time he needs. 
Eichard shall have that time^ which he needs. 

31. I know what messenger went, but I do not know which 
way he went. 

32. Amuse yourselves in whatever way best suits you. 
^ 33. These are the same gifts ; the very self -same gifts. 

34. Othello. '^I will a round unvarnished tale deliver 

Of my whole course of love ; what drugs, what charms, 
What conjurations and what mighty magic, 
I won his daughter with." 

That is ; naming those drugs^ with which drugs ; those charms^ with 
which charms ; that conjuration^ with which conjuration, etc. 

Note X. Tliem should never be used as a Designative. 

35. The traveller has all of those things. 

Vulgar. The traveller has all of them things. 

14:3- A Designative is used Relatively, when its consequent 
is not expressed. 

JSToTE XI. These Designatives are said to be used Relatively^ because, 
when the consequent is not expressed, the narratee is obliged to go 
'back [refer or relate] to the antecedent to find, or determine the conse- 
quent. Viewed in this light, all words used as Adjectives may be used 
relatively, except the, an or a, and every. 

36. This is the day, which was appointed for the trial. 

Parsing. Which is designative, used relatively, because, its conse- 
quent, day, is not expressed. 

37. Henry shall have what time he needs. Henry shall 
have that time, which time he needs. 

Note XII. What, used as a Designative, is equivalent to that which ; 
when wJtat is used definitely, its antecedent is to be found ; but, when 
what is used relatively, its antecedent and its consequent are to be found. 

38. I saw the man who brought the hat. I saw the man 
who [man] brought the hat. 



24:8 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Note XIII. Since who is the only English word, which, as an ad- 
junct, cannot have its consequent expressed, it follows that, as a desig- 
native word, who must be used relatively. See Syntax of Adj., Number. 

39. I know who did it. I know the persons who [persons] 
did it. 

Parsing. Who is a designative of the noun, persons, understood. 
It is used relatively ; because, its consequent is not expressed. 

40. Then one Hugo, who was only a serf, began to say 
unto his master. 

Faulty. Then one Hugo began to say unto his master, who was 
only a serf. 

Note XI Y. Sometimes for emphasis, or for convenience, the Rel- 
ative adjunct may precede its antecedent. 

41. To whom, and for what, I divulge the following narra- 
tive, will appear in the sequel. 

Note XY. Some grammarians caU these Designatives, Adjective Pro- 
nouns ; others, denying that they have any pronoun or personating office 
whatever, call who only an Adjective Pronoun, being misled by the fact 
that its consequent is always understood. See Syntax of Adj., Case. 

42. Mr. Brown owns the house, that — you saw. 

43. There are emotions, whose — thrill, no language por- 
trays. 

44. Tell me, which man saw, and which person heard him. 

Note XYI. It is usually asserted in grammar, that " who relates to 
persons; which to children, brutes, and inanimate things; while, t/iat 
relates tc^ny of these classes." When it was first made, this assertion 
would be if made now ; " The designates persons, a or an desigaates 
children, brutes, or inanimate things; while eve7'y designates any of 
these classes." 

The fact is, that at the time the assertion in regard to ivho was first 
made, who and which were used indiscriminately in relation to persons, 
children, brutes, etc., and are still so used, and must continue to be so 
used. As in the following example ; 

45. One of these men did it, but which [man], I cannot say. 
Incorrect. One of these men did it, but who, I cannot teU. 

46. Think of that life whose joys are eternal. 



DESIGNATIVE ADJECTIVES. 249 

The bad effects of the assertion about who and which have been and 
now are to give an imgrammatical appearance to all Standard Works in 
the English language, which were written before and during the earlier 
part of the seventeenth century; and, thus have made it necessary, 
either that these Standard Works should be corrected ( I ) or, that this 
strange assertion should be abandoned. 

In these Standard Works, numerous expressions like the following 
are found ; — 

47. Art thou greater than our father Jacob, which gave us 
the well ? 

48. Our Father, which art in heaven. Our Father, who 
art in heaven. 

14:3. A Designative is used iNTERROaATiVELY, when it is 
used in ashing questions, 

49. Whose house is that? Which of these houses is 
yours ? What means will secure your object ? 

Note XYII. Designatives, used Interrogatively, may, at the same 
time, be used definitely, or they may be used relatively ; except who^ 
which must always be used relatively. 

50. Which girl prefers to do this ? Which [girl] of these 
girls prefers to do this ? 

51. Which horse may I ride? Ans. Swiftfoot. 

Which horse may I ride ? Swiftfoot is the horse, which horse you 
may ride. 

52. Who is my neighbor ? 

53. What villains now disturb our rest? Ans. Bowdies. 

Answer, Rowdies are the villains^ which villains now disturb your 
rest. 

54. What object is that? Ans. A man [is that object]. 

55. To which lady did you give the book, and to which of 
the children shall I give this fruit ? 

144:. A Designative is used Distributively, lohen it sig- 
nifies that a collection of objects must he taken singly. 

56. Equal rations were given to each soldier of the regi- 
ment. 

Parsing. Each is a Designative, used distributively ; because, it sig- 
nifies that each individual (soldier) of a group {regiment) is meant. 

11* 



250 THE GRAMMAR OF LAXaUAGE. 

57. He called his servants and gave to each — liiis charge. 

58. Every pupil in the room knew the lesson perfectly. 

Note XYIII. Every ^ like a or an and the^ reqmres, either that- its 
consequent or that an adjunct of its consequent, be expressed. 
Hence, every^ as a Distributive, cannot be used relatively. 

59. He gives to every one [person] liberally. 

60. In the married state, the same rights naturally belong 
to either [or eadi] party ; neither party having the right to 
govern the other ■ — ; nor is either — bound to obey the other 
— implicitly. 

Note XIX. Either and neither designate one of tioo objects : as, — 

61. Either of the two boys will answer my purpose. 

Faulty. May either of the four boys go? Say, may any^ etc. 
Note XX. Other is often used in opposition to one; as, — 

62. Here are two books ; one is mine, the other is yours. 

Note XXL The individual thing, designated by a Distributive fol- 
lowed by one^ is always regarded as the third person, and the singular 
number. 

63. Every one of us is an individual. 

64. Each of you is implicated in this transaction. 

65. Each feeling, each thought, and each act of life makes 
its impress on the character. 

66. Every season has its own pleasures, differing in kind 
from the others ; but the same in its purpose. 

Note XXII. Many followed by an or a, has a Distributive signifi- 
cation. 

67. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, and waste 
its sweetness on the desert air. 

1415. Designatives are sometimes used Correlatively ; 
es'pecially^ in questions and their answers. 

68. Which road shall I take ? This road — — ; that road 
; the other road . 



THEORY OF ARTICLES. 251 

In this example, lohich and ihis are used correlatively ; because, 
which refers to this^ and this refers to which. ^ (See Subordinate Connec- 
tors.) 

69. What is that ? That is my coat. 

Note XXIII. When this, these, and that, those, are used Correlative- 
ly, this and these designate the nearer of two objects ; while, that and 
those designate the more remote of two objects. 

70. This boy may take a seat here with these boys; that 
boy may take a seat there with those boys. 

146. Those, who use the as a Definite Article, call 
an or a, an Indefinite Article, according to the follow- 
ing ;— 

Theory of Articles. 

I. An Article is an adjunct, used to point out a noun, or to limit its 
meaning. 

II. There are two kinds of Articles ; the Definite and the Indefinite. 

III. The Definite Article is used to point out some particular object 
or class of objects. The is the only word used as a Definite Article. 

1. This is the boy, whom I sent to call the men. 

AJialijsis ; The is used to point out boy; tliorefore, it is a Dejinke Article. See 
Analysis under example fifty-six. 

IV. The Indefinite Article is used to limit the noun to one of its 
kind, but to no particular one. An or a is the only Indefinite Article. 

a. An is used before a vowel, before a silent h, and before h, when 
the word is not accented on the first syllable. 

2. An artist painted a picture of an hippopotamus in an horn. 
Analysis ; An is found in the producer ; it is used to limit the meaning of artist 

to a single one ; therefore, it is an Indojinhe Article. 

h. A is used before a word beo:inning with a consonant, or whose 
pronunciation commences with a consonant sound. 

3. At a wedding there should be a union [yunyun] of hearts. 
Thus, we see that the Definite Article the is a Designating Adjective, 

used Definitely ; and that the Indefinite Article, an or a, is a Descriptive 
Adjective showing quantity or number. They agree in this one respect 
only ; neither of them is ever used except the noun to which it belongs, 
or an adjunct of its noun, is expressed after it. 

Many use the Theory of Articles, and many do not. We insert it ; 
first, for the convenience of those who prefer to continue the use of it; 
and second, for the information of such of our own readers, as may have 
occasion to discuss it, or to use it otherwise. 



252 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGK 

Attributes and Means of Knoiuing Them. 
14:7. Thirds the Attributes of Adjectives^ and the Means 
of Knowing them. Some Adjectives have the Attributes, 

Numher and Case. 

Nuniber. 

148. T/ze Number of an Adjective is sometimes ; first, a 
logical attrihute ivhich an Adjective expresses or takes from its 
oivn meaning ; second, a rhetorical attribute ivhich an Adjective 
derives from the number of its noun. 

Number^ as a Logical Attribute. 
14@. Number, as a logical attribute, belongs to 
Adjectives expressing quantity; of wliicli, we bave ; 
jirst^ tbose expressing Definite Quantities, or tlie 
Numeral Adjective; and second^ iho^e expressing In- 
definite Quantities. 

Examples. 

1. Definite Quantities. One man, in his time,' plays many 
parts ; his acts being seven ages. 

Parsing. One is a descriptive common Adjective ; or, one is a nu- 
meral Adjective of the cardinal kind. One has the logical attribute, 
singular Number ; because, it signifies a single individual. 

Seven is a numeral Adjective of the cardinal kind. It has the logi- 
cal attribute, 'plural iTumber ; because, it means more than one. 

2. The tenth pupil may read the first paragraph ; the seventh 
pupil may read the fifth paragraph. 

Parsing. Tenth is a numeral Adjective of the ordinal kind. It has 
the logical attribute, singular Number; because, it signifies but one. 

Note I. A numeral Adjective of the ordinal kind, has the Singular 
Number, logically, and it may have the Plural Number, rhetoricahy. 

3. Which is the greater, three fourth parts of twelve, or 
four fifth parts of ten ? Which is the greater, three fourths 
of twelve; or four fifths of ten ? 

The ordinals, fourth, fift\ have the logical attribute, singular Num- 
ber; while, the ordinals, fourths^ fifths, have the rhetorio?:d attribute. 
plural Number. 



NUMBEK3 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 253 

4. Indefinite Quantities. A man, who has any reason, 
would prefer a few good books to many bad ones. 

Parsing. J. is a descriptive Adjective of quantity definite. It has 
the logical attribute, singular Number ; because, etc. 

Many is a descriptive Adjective of quantity indefinite. It has the 
logical attribute, 2)hcral Number ; because, etc. 



Nuntber^ as a Rhetorical Attrihute, 

5. This basket contains the fruit of these trees ; that basket 
contains the fruit of those trees. 

Parsing. This is a designative, used definitely, as an Adjective of 
basket It has the rhetorical attribute, singular Number ; because, by 
its form, it shows that the singular number is an attribute of its noun. 

These has the rhetorical attribute, plural Number ; because, by its 
form, it shows that its noun has this attribute. 

6. One man came this way ; the other men went the other 
way. 

7. One man came this way; the others went the other 
way. 

Parsing. Others is a designative, used relatively, as an adjective of 
men, understood. It has the rhetorical attribute, plural Number, to 
show that its. noun, man, understood, has this attribute. 

8. Nine tenth parts of a dollar are equal to nine tenths of a 
dollar. 

The Adjective, tenth, has the logical attribute, singular Number; 
while, tenths has the rhetorical attribute, ^Z?^ra? Number ; because, it 
shows, by the suf&x modification, 5, the number of its noun, parts, 
understood. 

Note II. In the Enghsh, when an Adjective, by a suffix modifica- 
tion, shows the Plural Number of its noun, the noun itself is not ex- 



9. His fortune is eight, ninth parts of his brother's. His 
fortune is eight ninths of his brother's. 

Not used. His fortune is eight ninths parts of his brother's. 

In the Latin, in the G-reek, and in other languages. Adjectives, 
showing the Number of their nouns, are used when their nouns are 
expressed. 



254 THE GRAM^^IAR OF LANGUAGE. 

The Means of Kxowixa the Xu\[bees of Adjectives, 
130. The few English Adjectives, which show the 
Number of their nouns, do so in three ways ; — 
First. Logically^ or by their iiwanings only. 

1. I saw a buffalo, an elk, one panther, two bears, thousands 
of ducks, several deer ; but, I did not shoot any of them. 

Second, Rhetorically^ by a root modification. This 
and that are the only Adjectives belonging to this 
class. 

2. This boy may take these books, and that boy may take 

those books. 

Tliese is . It shows, by its form, that its noun, Ijoolis^ lias the 

pliu^al number. 

XoTE I. In such expressions as, these apples^ the Number (plural) 
of the noun, apples^ is shown in two ways ; first by the sufi&x modifi- 
cation, 5, of the noun itself; second^ hj the form of its Adjective, tliese. 
That \hQ form of the Adjective should show the number of its noun, is 
so hostile to the genius of the English language, that only two words, 
used as Adjectives, show the number of their nouns . by their /o?t/25, 
whose principal words or nouns are expressed. These words are tliis^ 
that, with their plurals, these, those. 

Third. By a suffix modification. An English Ad- 
jective sometimes takes a safB.x modification to show 
the Number of its noun, when that noun is in the Plural 
Number and is not expressed. 

3. A third part, or a third. Two third parts, or two thirds. 
Three fourth parts, or three fourths. 

XoTE II. Adjectives, thus pluralized. are often mistaken for nouns, 
and parsed as such. The practice has nothing to commend it. 

4. Some of the men cheered ; the others kept silence ; or, 
the other men kept silence. 

Case. 
151. The Case of an Adjective is a rheiorical attribute^ 
hy which, a few English adjectives show or express the cases bf 
their nouns. 



MEANS OF KNOWING CASES. 255 

152. In the English, when an Adjective shows the 
Case of its noun, the noun itself is understood. 

Note I. Who^ and its compounds, whoever^ whosOj whosoever^ etc., 
show the Cases of their nouns. 

Examples. 

1. Who [person] did this ? I do not know the person 

who [person] did it. I do not know — who did it. 

ParsiJig, Who is a designative, used relatively. It has the rhe- 
torical attribute, nominative Case ; because, it shows, by its form {who) 
that its noun, person^ has the nominative Case. 

2. Whose book is this, and to whom shall I hand it? 
Whose [person's] and to whom [person] shall I hand it ? 

Parsing, Whose is a designative interrogative Adj., used relatively. 
It is said to have the possessive Case"; because, it shows, by its form, 
{whose) that its noun, person^s, understood, is in the possessive case. 

Whom has the attribute, objective Case ; because, etc. 

3. The woman, of whom [woman] I spoke, is she whose 
father sold this house to the man who now resides here. 

Note II. Other^ and its compound, another^ shows both the Number 
and the Case of their nouns. 

4. One boy has the other boy's book. One boy has the 
other's book. 

Parsing. Other^s is a designative, used distributively. It has the 
attributes, sing, num., possessive Case ; because, it shows, by its form, 
that its principal word, boy's, has these properties. 

5. These boys may sit here, the other boys may sit there ; 
or the others may sit there. 

6. Here are the other boys' slates ; or, here are the others' 
slates ; or, the slates of the others. 



The Means of Knowing the Cases of Adjectives. 

153. In the English language, the Adjectives, who^ 
and other^ and their compounds, have suffix modifica- 
tions, to show the Cases of their nouns. 



256 THE GRAMMAR OF LAKGUAGE, 

Examples. 

1. Who did this ? Whom did you see ? Whose book is 
this ? Of whom did you get it ? 

2. Is it another pupil's book ? Is it another's book ? Was 
It the other boy's ball ? Was it the other's ball ? Where is 
the other boys' play -ground? Where is the others' play- 
ground ? 

3. One boy must not use another boy's slate. One boy 
must not use another's slate. 

Declension of the Adjective. 

154. Fourthj the Declension and Comparison of the 
Adjective. The Declen^on of an Adjective is a mode of 
showing its Number and Case. 

Table. 

15S. Declension of the Adjectiyes, ThU, 

That, Who, Other, etc. 

This and that show Number only. 

Singular. This, that. Plural. These, those. 

Who, and its compounds, show Case only. 



27bminaHv6. 


Odjeciive. 


Fossessvve. 


Who 


whom 


whose, of whom 


Whosoever, whoever 


whomsoever, 


whosoever, of whomsoever 



Whoso is defective in Case ; because, it lacks the Objective, and the 
Possessive Cases. 

Other shows both the Number and Case of its noun. 

27bminative. Objecti've. Posse&si'Ve. 

Singula/r. Other other other's, of other 

Plural. Others others others', of others, 

Singular. Another another another's, of another. 

Another is defective in Number ; because, it lacks the Plural. 

Nominative. Objecti/ve. Possemi've. 

Singular. Third third of a third 

Plural. Thirds thirds thirds', of thirds 

In like manner, Decline any of the ordinals ; as fourth^ fifth^ eta 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 257 

TJie Comparison of the Adjective, 

Lit. Def. The word, comparison^ means the science and a/rt of 
measuring together. 

1 56. The Comparison of the Adjective is a mode of com- 
paring twOj or more nouns, with reference to the same attribvi& 
or property. 

Note I. Many adjectives are not compared. Those, which have Const- 
parison, are generally Adjectives of quantity indefinite, and of quality.. 

157. Adjectives have three Degrees of Cotnparison; 
namely, the Positive., the Corajparative., and the Superla- 
tive Degrees. 

Positive Degree. 

Lit. Def. The word, positive,^ means like that which is fixed, sure. 

158. TJie Positive Degree is attributed to an adjective,, 
when it is used in comparing one noun with an indefinite num- 
ber of others, in reference to the same attribute or property. 

Examples. 

1. You have a large apple, and a small squash. 

Parsing. Large is a common Adjective of quantity indefinite. It 
has the attribute, positive Degree ; because, it is a comparison between 
one apple and all other apples or an indefinite number of apples. That 
is, compared with other apples, this one is large, although compared 
with squashes, it might be small. 

2. An apple is large, and a pea is small. An apple is large 
fruit ; a pea is small fruit. 

3. The dog killed a large rat and a small mouse. 

4. An elephant is very large ; a mouse is very small. 

Note II. Many suppose that the Positive is improperly called a 
Degree ; these overlook the fact, that every Adjective is a basis of some 
classification, and that every classification involves a comparison be- 
tween two or more. It may be a comparison between one and an in- 
definite number of the same kind ; or, it may be a comparison between 
two of the same, or of different kinds ; or, it may be *a comparison be- 
tween one and a definite number of the same kind, more than two. 

* Comparison. {i)son =« sion == Hon, ; par^ measures, equals ; com = Otm^ 

together. 

2 Positive, itive, ; pos = pon, put, fixed, sure. 



258 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

5. A tall man wore a round hat, a long coat, an old patched 
shoe. 

Comparative Degree. 

130. The CoMPARATiYE Degree is attributed to an adjec- 
tive, wheji the adjective is used in a cor}iparison between two 
nou7is naming objects of the same, or of different kinds. 

Note III. When the Comparative Degree is used, the latter term 
of a comparison is connected to the former by the connector, than. In 
the old English, then was used instead of than. 

6. I would rather have wisdom than gold. I would rather 
have wisdom than I would have gold. I would rather have 
wisdom then [next] I would have gold. 

7. You have a larger apple than mine. Your apple is 
larger than my apple. 

Parsing. Larger is a descriptive Adjective of quantity indefinite. 
It has the comparative Degree ; because, it is used in a comparison 
between two apples, in reference to the same attribute, size. 

Exceptions to Note III. The connector, than, must not be used after 
the following comparatives ; after ^ former, hither, latter, hinder, upper, 
under, nether, inner, outer, utter ; and, also, anterior, exterior, inferior, in- 
terior, junior, 7najor, minor, posterior, prior, senior, and superior; as, 
steel is superior to iron for cutlery. 

Note IV. When an individual is compared with the rest of its class 
or kind, the adjunct, other, should be used with the second term. 

8. They think gold is superior to the other metals. 
Error. They think that gold is superior to the metals. 

Note Y. Sometimes both than and other are used with the latter 
term. 

9. This horse is better than the other horses. 



Superlative Degree. 

Lit. Dep. The word, superlative,^ means like that which carries 
above, over. 

1 Sttpeelativb. ia)tiv6, •; la, carries; super, above, over. 



COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. 259 

160. The Superlative -Decree is attributed to an adjec- 
tive^ when it is used in a comparison between one noun and a 
definite number of others of the same kind in regard to the same 
attribute. 

Note YI. When no definite number is stated with the Superlative, 
all^ or the whole of that kind must be understood. 

10. The largest and most delicious fruits are produced by 
the most thrifty trees. 

Parsing. Largest is a . It has the attribute, superlative De- 
gree ; because, it compares one class of fruits with all other classes 
of fruits with reference to the same attribute or property, size. 

Note VII. When the Superlative Degree is used, the latter term 
must include the former. 

11. Gold is the most valuable of all metals. Gold is the 
most valuable of metals. 

Error, Gold is the most valuable of all the other metals. 

12. Avarice begets the meanest motives, and if indulged, 
produces the most despicable character. 

13. It is our duty to avoid every pernicious indulgence, 
not only the most^ but also even the least pernicious. 

Note VIIL Double Comparatives and Superlatives should be 
avoided. 

14. "Wisdom is better than houses and lands. 
Faulty. Wisdom is more better than houses and lands. 
15." Give your parents my most kind regards. 
Faulty. Give your parents my most kindest regards. 

Note IX. The double Superlative was formerly used to express 
sublime emotion, or intense passion. (See Bible^ and English Works 
written during the fourteenth and some subsequent centuries.) 

Means of Knowing the Degrees of Comparison. 

161. Tlie different Degrees used in the Comparison 
of Adjectives^ are formed in three ways ; 



260 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

First The Positive Degree is, tlie^ir^^^ or radical fornx 
of the Adjective. 

Second. The Comparative Degree, in its Regular Com- 
parison, is formed by adding the suffix modification, er, 
to the Positive; or, by using the adjuncts, more, less^ 
with the Positive. 

]^OTE I. Generally, the suffix, er, is used with words of one syllable ; 
while the adjuncts, more^ less, are used with words of two or more 
syllables. To these usages, there are many exceptions. Some form a 
Comparative in both ways. 

Examples. 

1. This train is slow, but that train is shiver. This is a 
slow train, that is a slower train. The last testimony was 
positive, this is less positive, the next will be more positive. 
This is a happy time, but that was a happier time ; or, this is 
a more happy time ; the next time will be less happy. 

The Comparative Degree, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by nsing a word different from the Positive. 

2. This is a good house, that is a letter house. This is a 
bad day, but that was a icorse day. 

Third. The Superlative Degree, in its Regular Com- 
parison, is formed by adding the sufl&x modification, 
65^, to the Positive form ; or, by using the adjuncts, raost.^ 
least ^ with the Positive. 

3. That is a slow train, and that is a slower train, but this 
is the slovjest train. One stone is precious, another is more 
precious, but this is the most precious. 

4. This metal is rare, that metal is rarer, but this metal is 
the rarest. That metal is rare, and that metal is more rare^ 
but this metal is the viost rare. 

The Superlative DegTce, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by substituting another v^ord for the Positive. 

5. That hat is good, that is a better, but this is the hest. 



COMPAEISOK OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



261 



This is a bad habit, this is a worse habit, but this is the worst 
habit. 

162. The Comparison of the Adjective is shown by 



following ; — 


Table. 

REaULAR COMPARISON. 




Positive^ 


Oo77iparative. 


Superlative. 


New 


newer 


newest 


True 


truer 


truest 


True 


more true 


most true 


True 


less true 


least true 


Precious 


more precious 


most precious 


Precious 


less precious 


least precious 


Happy 


happier 


happiest 


Happy 


more happy 


most happy 


Happy 


less happy 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 


least happy. 


Positive, 


Comparative. 


Superlati/ce, 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Much 


more 


most 



Some Adjectives are defective in Comparison, as ;- 



Positive, 



Comparative. 

after 

further 

hither 

nether 

under 



Superlative. 

aftermost 

furthermost 

hithermost 

nethermost 

undermo'st. 



The following Adjectives are redundant in Comparison; — 



Positive^ 
Far 

Fore 

Hind 

In 

Late 

Low 

Old 



Comparative. 
farther 

former 

hinder 

inner 

later, latter 

lower 

older 



Superlative, 
farthest, farthermost, or 

farmost 
foremost, or first 
hindmost, or hindermost 
inmost, or innermost 
latest, or last 
lowest, or lowermost 
eldest, or oldest 



262 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



Positive. 


Comparative, 


^perlaiive. 


Out 


outer, utter 


outmost, outermost, 
utmost, uttermost 


Up 


upper 


upmost, uppermost 


North 


northern 


northmost, northernmost 


South 


southern 


southmost. southernmost 


East 


eastern 


eastmost, easternmost 


West 


western 


westmost, westernmost. 



Note II. Some think that more, most^ less^ when used as suiBBxes^ 
form the Comparatives and the Superlatives of the words to which 
they are sufl&xed. It will, generally, be found better to consider them 
as Expletives or Intensives ; as, — 

Evermore^ nevermore^ furthermore; farthermost^ uppermost^ topmost, 
nethermost^ frontmost, middlemost^ hindermost; nevertheless, causeless, 
sinless; etc., etc. 

Note III. Adjectives, which already signify fulness or complete- 
ness, do not admit of Comparison ; as, all, round, perfect, complete, etc, 
"When such forms, as more perfect, most perfect, are used, they should 
be regarded as Intensives, Emphatics, Expletives, etc. 

Syntax of Adjectives. 
163. Fift\ the Syntax of the Adjective. 

Rules for Position. 

104L. Rule I. Generally, the Adjective must 'precede its 
noun. 

Examples. 

1. The all- wise and beneyolent Creator has provided aD 
these good things. 

Note I. Rule I. is a general Rule, to which there are several excep- 
tions ; — ' 

. First Exception. When several attributes of the first term 
are compared with the same attributes in the second term. 

2. This apple is sweet, mellow^ and juicy. 

In this example, the attributes, sweet, mellow, juicy, are comparea 
with the same attributes in an indefinite number of apples. 

3. This apple is sweeter, mellower, and more juicy than 
the other apples. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 263 

4. This apple is the sweetest, the mellowest, and the most 
juicr [apple] of all these apples. 

Second Exception, When the Adjective would interfere 
with the directness, or distinctness of the expression. 

5. Henry is a true gentleman, quiet in his deportment^ 
pleasant in his address, and social in his habits. 

Third Exception. When we would make the Adjective 
more prominent, or emphatic. 

6. God is a spirit, infinite^ eternal^ unchangeoMe, etc. 
Eourth Exception. When the affirmer helps to show the 

relation of the Adjective to its noun. 

7. The bolts, having become loose^ were made tighter. 

8. The sky looks cold and dreary, while the blast is strong 
and bitter. 

Fifth Exception. In many instances, the Adjective may 
precede, or it may follow the noun, at the pleasure of the 
writer, or speaker. 

9. This is a large, commodious, and elegant building. 
This building is large, commodious, and elegant. 

IGS. Rule II. A designative Adjective^ used relatively 
or as a relative adjunct^ should he placed as near its antecedent 
as possible. 

10. Then one Hugo, who was only a serf, began to say 
unto his master. Then one Hugo began to say unto his 
master, loho was only a serf. 

In the first example, Hugo is the serf; in the second, the master is 
the serf. 

Exception. Sometimes, for emphasis, or for convenience, 
the relative adjunct may precede its antecedent. 

11. To whom, and for what, I divulge the following narra- 
tive, will appear in the sequel. The person, to whom I 
divulge the following narrative, and the purpose, for Avhat, I 
divulge the following narrative, will appear in the sequel. 

12. Whose fan is in his hand, he will thoroughly purge his " 
lloor. He, whose fan is in his hand, will, etc. 



264 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Note IL Since who is always used relatively, it follows that 
•especial pains should be taken to place it immediately after its ante- 
cedent. 

13, Behold, I have taken upon me to speak unto the Lord, 
^ho am but dust and ashes. Behold, I, who am but dust and 
ashes, have taken, etc. 

Rules for the Attributes of the Adjective. 

166. Rule III. An Adjective signifying the Singular 
Numh&r must he used with a noun in the singular number; 
while^ an Adjective^ signifying the Plural Number^ must be used 
with a noun in the Plural Number. 

14, Om dollar is not enough; nor /w;c? dollars ; nov three 
' dollars. It will require many dollars. 

167. Rule IV. An Adjective^ having the modifications 
of Nmnher^ must take that modification which shows the Number 
of tlm noun^ to which it belongs. 

15, Put thi^ hat into that box, and these hats into those 
boxes. 

Errors. Put these hat into those box, and this hats into that boxes. 

16, Give this apple to that boy, and these apples to the 
others ; or, give these apples to the other boys. 

168. Rule Y. An Adjective^ having a Plural modifica- 
tion^ must not he used with a noun which is expressed. 

17, One ^ixth of a stake is white, two sixths of it are red, 
and three sixths of it are blue. One sixth part of a stake is 
white, two sixth parts of it are red, and three sixth parts of it 
are blue. 

18, This horse is one of your horses. This horse is one 
of yours. 

Exception. These^ and those^ as Adjectives, may be used 
with a noun either expressed or understood. 

19, These boys recited, and those boys did not; because, 
these studied their lessons, and those did not. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 265 

160. EuLE YI. An Adjective^ having Case modifications^ 
must have that modification which shows the case of its noun. 

20. The boy, who (nominative) studied his lesson, is he, to 
whom (objective) you gave the book. 

21. This is the girl, whose (possessive) book was lost. 

170. KuLE YII. An Adjective^ having Case modifica- 
tions^ must not he used with a 7ioun which is expressed. 

22. Two brothers live in town, the other brothers live in 
the country. Two brothers live in town, the others live in 
the country. 

Error. Two brothers hve in town, the two others brothers Hve in 
the country. 

23. Who [person] gave you this most excellent book? 

Who shows that the Case of the noun, understood after it, is the 
Nominative ; hence, we do not say, " Who person." Some writers 
retain who as a jpronoun^ after discarding that classification of words 
usually known as Adjective Pronouns^ not being able to dispose of who^ 
as an Adjective, because its consequent can not be expressed ; and yet, 
these do not consider other^s, the singular possessive, or others, the 
plural of otJier, as pronouns, although their nouns are always under- 
stood ; and for the reason, that, by their forms, they show the cases 
of their nouns. 

24. To one man, he gave a reward ; to the others [men] he 
gave a reproof. 

25. I saw the man, to whom [man] you. sent the message. 

It is often urged that this construction of who must be wrocg, ''be- 
cause it sounds oddly." It does indeed sound oddly to hear one say, 
"who man," or "to whom man," and the reason is stated in the rule 
above. Notice this, the other man sounds very well, because we are 
accustomed to it ; but, the others men sounds strangely to our ears, 
which would not be the case, were we accustomed to use it, as is done 
with similar words in other languages. Be careful to what extent you 
make familiarity of sound the test of philosophical correctness. It is 
a proper test to the cultivated ear only. 

This omission of the noun is analogous to its omission after the pro- 
nouns mine^ thine, etc., although the reasons are not the same. 

Note III. The modifications of these few Adjectives give us some 
idea of those languages, as the Latin and G-reek, and many of the 

12 



266 THE GIIAM]\IAR OF LANGUAGE. 

modern European, whose Adjectiyes, by their forms, always show the 
Gender, Number, and Case of their consequents. 

Note IY. Some grammarians call an Adjective, whose noun is 
understood, "An Adjective used as a noun." This practice is wrong; 
first^ because it confuses the grammatical classes of words ; second, 
because it gives an erroneous parsing to the Adjective ; third, because 
nothing is gained by parsing the Adjective in this manner. An 
Adjective, whose noun is understood, must be parsed the same as if 
its noun were expressed. 

26. The industrious are filled with good, while the lazy are 
filled with leanness. 

Industrious is an Adjective ; because, it is an adjunct of the noun, 
persons, understood. It is a common descriptive Adjective, in the pos- 
itive degree, etc. 

Erroneous Analysis. '* Industrious is an Adjective, used as a noun. 
Neuter, third, plural, nominative Case." 

Note Y. Designative Adjectives are sometimes called " Adjective 
Pronouns; " sometimes, also, they are called " Pronomixal Adjectives.''^ 
This is wrong; Ji7^st, because, according to the definition of a pronoun, 
a pronoun is a word, used instead of or in the place of a noun ; an office, 
in which, a designative is never used ; second, because, a designative is 
always an adjunct of a noun, which is expressed, or understood. 

The practice of parsing Adjectives as nouns, has led the gram- 
marians into many absurdities. See Grammars, Adjectives, Adjective 
Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, etc. 



Note. Now, beginning with the first example under Adjectives, 
let the student give the Logical, the Rhetorical, and the Grammatical 
Analysis of each Adjective. 

Examples. 

1. Large^ buildings^ are^ now^ standing'* where® thaf grove^ 
once® stood^ 

N.B. — Let the student write this example, and draw one line 
through the words which are used in expressing the first part 
of the thought ; two lines through the words expressing the second 
part of the thought, and three lines through the words expressing 
the third part of the thought. 

a 

General Analysis. F S = F g (+\ fs ' Translation. 



ANALYSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 267 

Special Analysis. Logically, large is a subordinate idea of quantity, 
having a natural relation to the actor, buildings ; rhetorically, kirge is 
used as an adjunct of the subject, buildings, to which, its relation is 
shown by position only; therefob::, grammatically, la7-ge is a descrip- 
tive common Adjective. Large is a descriptive common Adjective of 
quantity indeiinite. It has the posi dve degree and is compared, Posi- 
tive, LARGE (Here I) ; Comparative, larger; Superlative, largest. 

Logically, t/iat is a subordiniite idea of position, having an incidental 
relation to the actor, grove; rhetorically, that is used as an adjunct of 
the subject, g?-ove, to which its relation is shown by its position only; 
therefore, grammatically, that is a designative common Adjective. That 
is a designative common Adjective, used definitely. Thai shows that its 
noun, grove, is in the singular number. It is declined ; Singulo/r^ THAT 
(Here !) ; Plural, those. That is not compared. 

2. TJie^ Boston' maiP is' closed' at' ten' o"clock^ 

General Analysis. T S /. Translation. 

Special Analysis, The, logically, is a subordinate idea of relation or 
position, having an incidental relation to the receiver, mail. The, rhe- 
torically, is used as an adjunct of the subject, mail to which its relation 
is shown by position; therefore, the, grammatically, is a designative 
Adjective, used definitely. The is neither declined, nor compared. 

According to " The Theory of Articles," the is parsed as follows; — 

The is a definite article, belonging to the noun, m.ail. 

Special Analysis. Logically, Boston is a subordinate idea of place, 
having an artificial relation to the receiver, m,ail; rhetorically, Boston is 
an adjunct of the subject, mail, to which, its relation is shown by posi- 
tion; therefore, grammatically, i?o<s^(9?^is a descriptive proper Adjective, 
belonging to the noun, mail It is neither declined, nor compared. 

3. An^ old^ oak' tree' grew' on* the' top' of a' mountain'. 

Special Analysis. Logically, an is a subordinate idea of quantity, 
having a natural relation to the actor, tree; rhetorically, anis an adjunct 
of the subject, tree, related by position ; therefore, grammatically, aw is 
a descriptive Adjective of quantity definite. It has the two forms, an, 
a, of which an is here used, because it precedes a word, beginning 
with a vowel sound. In like manner, analyze tlie Adjective, a. 

According to ^' The TJieory of Articles,''^ an is parsed as foUows; — 

" J.?^ is an indefinite article, belonging to the noun, tree.'''' 

4. This space is just luhat I need for my posies. This 
space is just that space which space, I need for my posies. 

What is a contraction of that, an adjunct of the antecedent word, 
spojce, and whic\ an adjunct of the subsequent word, space; hence, 
whai may be parsed as an adjunct, which, by contraction, is equivalent 



268 THE GRAMMAE OF LA^-GUAGK 

to the adjunct, thaf^ of its antecedent, , and the adjunct, wMch^ of 

the subsequent, . 

5. The book is where you left it. The book is in that place, 
in which place you left it. 

6. To die for one's country is glorious. 

Parsing. Glorious is a descriptive common Adjective, belonging 
to the clause noun, to die for one!s country. It is in the positive de- 
gree, and is compared; Positive, Glorious (Here!); Comparative^ 
MORE , LESS ; Superlative, most , least . 

7. Your spread-eagle sort of a man is rather too pompous a 
man to suit me. 

Parsing. Spread-eagle is a phrase descriptive common Adjective, 
belonging to the noun, sort. It is in the positive degree, and is com- 
pared; Positive, spread-eagle (Here I); Comp., more, , less 

; Sup , MOST , least . 

8. The boat, which left here this morning , was damaged by 
a snag this afternoon. 

Parsing. Which left here this morning is a descriptive common 
Adjective, belonging to the noun, boat. It is not compared. 

9. I beard of the man to whom we sent the hooks, which loere 
sent last lueek. 

Parsing. To whom we sent the hooks, which were sent last weekj 
is a descriptive common Adjective, belonging to the noun man. 

Which [books] were sent last week is a clause descriptive common 
Adjective, belonging to the noun hooks^ of the clause, to whom we sent 

the hooks. 

10. Hajjjner days may be in store for us, but none more 
profitable can be expected. 

General Analysis. Logically, happier, is a subordinate idea, having 
a natural relation to the actor, days ; rhetorically, happier is a word 
adjunct of the subject, days; therefore, grammatically, happier is a 
descriptive common Adjective. It is in the comparative degree, and is 
compared; Positive, happy; Comp,, happier (Herel); more happy, 

LESS HAPPY ; Sup., HAPPIEST, MOST HAPPY, LEAST HAPPY. 

11. Our best thoughts should afford us supreme delight. 



ANALYSES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



269 




270 



THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



*Si£'BAi xis ni uj^ouii 



o) :::: o^ 

>5 S ,.-0 -^ >5 



-2 ^ 






s 






^^ ^p:; 



•^ o 




VERBS — DEFINITIONS. 271 



Verbs. 



1 73. The science of the Verb includes ; firsts the 
Definitions and Special Name of the Verb ; second^ the 
Classifications ; third^ the Attributes or Properties, and 
the Means of knowing them ; fourth^ the Conjugation ; 
and ffih^ the Syntax of the Verl^. 

!The word, verh^ means 
speech, sound, action. 
A Verb is a word, or 
a phrase, whic\ in a sentence, has the use or office of a predicate 
or affirmer. 

Examples. 

1. Thy word created all, and doth create j 

Thy splendor fills all space with rays divine ; 
Thou art, and wert, and shalt he I 

Grammatical Analysis. Created is a verb; because, in this sen- 
tence, it is used as a predicate or af6.rmer. 

Special Name of the Yerh. 

174. Special Name. The Special Name o/ ?^Ae Yerh 
is the simple form of the predicate and the relator, to, as they 
are used in a first object clause connected hy its form. 

2. Teach them to oley the laws. 

Parsing. Obey is a Verb ; because, in this sentence, it has the use 
or office of an affirmer. It is affirmer of the first object clause, them to 
obey the laws, and is related to the subject, personated by them, by the 
relator, to ; the clause being joined to another clause by its form. 
Taken with the relator, to, it forms the special name, To Obey, of the 
Verb. 

175. Second^ the Classifications. Verbs are 
classified according to three bases ; flrst^ according to 
formation ; second^ according to transition ; and third, 
according to their second and fourth principal parts. 



272 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

176. First Classification. According to /orr/ia^ibri, 
Verbs are Simple^ and Compound. 

177. A Simple Yerl is a word 'predicate. 

Examples. 

1. I came^ I saw^ I conquered. 

Grammatical Analysis. Game is a simple Yerb ; from the Yerb, to 
come. It is simple, because it is a word predicate. 

178. A Compound Verb is a phrase predicate; of which 
the principal predicate is the Principal Yerb, and the auxil- 
iary predicates are the Auxiliary Verbs. 

2. Thou shalt he. Thou sJialt he conquering the nations. 
The nations shall he conquered by thee. 

Parsing. Shali he is a compovrnd Yerb ; from the Yerb, to he. Its 
principal is 5e, its auxiliary is slialt. It is a compound Yerb, because 
it is a phrase predicate. 

Shalt he conquering is a compound Yerb; from the Yerb, to conquer ; 
slialt is an auxiliary of he ; he is an auxiliary of conquering ; and con- 
quering is the principal Yerb. It is compound, because, etc. 

3. Will I have read the book ? Will I have been reading 
the book ? Will the book have been read by me ? 

Note I. Auxiliary Yerbs are sometimes called Helping Yerbs ; be- 
cause, they are used to help or assist in showing certain attributes or 
properties of the Yerb. 

179. When used as Verbs, do^ be, have^ and luill may 
be Principal, or tliey may be Auxiliary Verbs ; while, 
may, can, must, and shall are always Auxiliary Verbs. 

4. I do do this work. Thou dost do this work. He does 
do this work. She doeth this work. I am doing this work. 
This work is done by me. How do you do your work ? 
How do you do ? 

Parsing. Do do is a compound Yerb ; of which, the latter do is the 
principal Yerb ; while, the former is its auxiliary Yerb. 

5. I will that thou shall go to-morrow. He will come to 
thee. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 273 

6. He may go, but he can stay if he choose. He must 
choose ; if he do not, he shall go. 

180. The different forms of a Yerb are divided into 
two kinds ; called, the Princi;pal^ and the Derivative 
Parts of the Verb. 

Tlie Principal Parts of the Verb, 

181. The Principal Parts of a Yerb are four in 
number, and are generally known as ; The Verh-Root or 
The First Principal Part^ the Second^ the Third^ and the 
Fourth Principal Parts of the Yerb. 

Note II. They are called Principal Parts, because by their aid, to- 
gether with that of a few Rules, the remaining or derivative Parts of 
the Yerb may be formed very easily. 

The Verb Root or The First Principal Part, 

1 83. The Yerb-Root or The First Principal Part 
cf the Verb is the part which is used in forming the Special 
Name of the Verh, 

7. We desired the children to obey their parents. We 
saw the wild horses [to] run. 

Oiey is the verh-root or the first principal part of the Yerb, to obey. 
The relator, fe, is its sign. 

Run is the verh-root or the first principal part of the Yerb, to run. 
Its sign^ [to], is understood. 

The Second^ and the Fourth Principal Parts. 

183. The Second, and the Fourth Principal Parts are 
those forms of the verb^ which^ generally^ are made by suffixing 
ED to the verb-root. 

To this definition, there are some exceptions. 

8. The children obeyed their parents. The children have 
obeyed their parents. 

Obeyed is the second^ and also, the fourth principal part of the Yerb, 
to obey. It is formed by suffixing ed to the Yerb-Hoot, oley, 

12* 



274 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

184:. First Special Peinctple. A vowel^ at the end of 
a verb root^ is drojjped before suffixing ED. 

9. I loved thj law. I have loved thy law. We desired 
them to eat the food. We had desired them to eat the food. 

Loved is the second^ and also, the fourth princixtol port of the Yerb, 
to love. It is formed by dropping the final vowel, e, and suffixing ed 
Thus, love-ed becomes loved. 

183. Second Special Principle. YJ ending a verh- 
root^ is sometimes changed into i, and the voivel of the suffix is 
dropped ; and^ in a few other instances^ the E of the suffix is 
dropped. 

10. I laid the money, which I paid, on the counter, as I 
said. 

Laid is the second^ and also, the fourth ^principal pmi of the Yerb, 
to lay. It is formed by changing y final to i, and dropping the e of the 
suffix, ed. Thus, lay-ed becomes lai-ed, which becomes laid. There is 
no good cause for this change. These three Yerbs would be improved, 
if they were written, layed, payed, sayed, as the3^were written formerly, 
and as other Yerbs, ending in y, now are ; as, stay, stayed. 

Exceptions. — In the English, about 160 Verbs are found, 
which do not form their Second and Fourth Principal Parts 
by suffixing ed to the Verb-Root. This number is gradually 
becoming less. 

1 1. I gave you this book. The dog ran down the hill. 

Gave is the Second Principal Part of the Yerb, to give. It is formed 
}dy a root modification of the Yerb-Root, by which give becomes gave. 

18©. The Third Principal Part of the Verb is formed 
by suffixing ing to the verb-root. 

12. The boy, being in school, was studying his lessons. 

Being is the third principal part of the Yerb, to he. It is formed 
by suffixing ing to the Yerb-Root, le. 

Derivative Parts of the Yerb. 
Lit. Def. The word, derivative,^ means like that luhicli flovjs frora, 

1 Deriyatiye. ative^ ; ri'D = rJiet., flows, comes; de^ from. 



TRANSITIVE VERBS. 275 

187. The Derivative Parts of the Verh are those which 
are formed from the 'principal 'parts ^ according to certain Rules, 

Note III. The Derivative Parts of a Verb are sometimes called tlie 
Stcondarij Parts of a Verb. The formation of the Derivative Parts of 
the Verb is shown under the Means of Knowing the Attributes or 
Properties of the Verb, and in the Conjugation of the Verb. 

188. Secocd Classification of Verbs. According 

to transition^ Verbs are Transitive^ and Intransitive, 

Transitive Yerhs. 
Lit. Def. The word, trarisitive^^ means like that which goes across^ 



18S. A Transitive Yerh expresses an action requiring a 
receiver. 

Examples. 

1. We heard the children singing their song. 

Gram'matical Anali/sis. Heard is a transitive simple Verb, from the 
Verb, to hear. It is a remarkable Verb, because the e of the suffix, ed, 
is dropped in the formation of the second and fourth principal parts ; 
in which, hea,red becomes heard. Heard is transitive, because it names 
an action requiring a receiver ; or, because it is used in a sentence ex- 
pressing a thought of three parts. 

Singing is a transitive Verb, from the Verb, to sing. 

2. Will the lady sing a song ? The lady will sing a song. 
The lady will sing. 

3. Was your lesson well recited? My lesson was recited 
very well. 

Parsing. Was recited is a transitive compound Verb, from the Verb, 
to recite. Its principal parts are, to recite, I recited, reciting, recited. 

4. How do you do ? You do do how ? How are you ? 
You are how ? 

5. That man is supposed to have discovered a new principle. 
They suppose that he has discovered a new principle. 

Parsing. Is supposed is a transitive compound Verb. It is transitive, 
because its action requires a receiver, v^hich is here the dependent 
thought, that man to have discovered a new principle. 

1 Tranbitive. tvve, — ; i, goes, passes ; trcms, across, beyond ; in, not 



276 THE GEAMMAK OF LANGUAGE. 

6. They thought that he was insane. He was thought to 
be insane. 

Intransitive Verhs. 

Ijt. ])ef. The Tvord, intransitive, means not like that which passes, 
goes across, leyond. 

19©. An Intransitive Yerh expresses an action not re- 
quiring a receiver ; or^ is used in a sentence expressing a thought 
of tivo pjarts. 

7. Thou art, and \'jert, and shalt be. 

Farsing. Art is an intransitive simple Yerb, from the Yerb, to "be. 
Art is intransitive, because it expresses an action not requiring a re- 
ceiver ; or, is in a sentence expressing a thought of tv^o parts. 

8. Some persons were walking, some were standing, and 
others icere sitting. 

Parsing. Were walJiing is an intransitive compound Yerb, from the 
Yerb, to icalk. It is intransitive, because, etc. 

XoTE I. Tt has been suggested that Intransitive Yerbs might, with 
propriety, be called Corrq)lete Yerbs; because, they express the entire 
effects ; or, because, they do not require a receiver. Transitive Yerbs, 
with equal propriety, might be called Incomplete Yerbs; because, they 
express incomplete effects; or, because, they do require a receiver. 

9. The birds were flying in the air, and the boy was flj^ing 
his kite in the air. 

Parsing. Were flying is an intransitive or comp)lete compound Yerb. 
It is an intransitive or complete Yerb, because its action does not re- 
quire a receiver in order to comj^lete the effect. 

Was flying \?= a transitive or incomplete compound Yerb ; because, its 
action does require a receiver in order to complete the effect. (See 
Chap. I., Cause and Efl'ect.) 

Note II. Some Yerbs are naturally Transitive, because they always 
express actions requiring a receiver ; as, 

10. Animals eat, and drink. Men love, and hate. 

XoTE III. Some Yerbs are naturally Intransitive, because they al- 
ways express actions which do not require a receiver ; as, 

11. Animals exist. Brutes are animals. Men sit. 



EEGULAR VERBS. 277 

Note IY. Some Yerbs are variable in Transition, because they 
sometimes express actions which have no receiver, and, at other times, 
express actions w^hich do have a receiver. 

12. The boy is running through the field. The soldiers 

aix running bullets in their moulds. 

In this example, is running means to move swiftly^ and is intransi- 
tive ; while are running means to cast^ to pour^ and hence, is transitive. 

Note Y. Some Yerbs are specially Transitive, because they require 
that the name of the receiver shall include the root of the Yerb ; as, 

13. She sleeps the sleep of death. I dreamed a dream. 

Sleeps is specially transitive ; because its action admits no receiver, 
except the idea, sleep. 

14. It was thought that this story was told to Herodotus 
by the Egyptians. 

15. The boy asserted that he gave the book to his brother, 
who was to carry it home. 

191. Third Classification of Verbs. According to 

the formation of their second and fourth principal parts^ 
Verbs are diYided into Regular^ and Irregular Verbs. 

Regular Verhs. 

192. A Eegular Verb is one whose second and fourth 
principal parts are formed hy suffixing ed to the verh-root or 
first principal part. 

Note I. A subsequent contraction should not be held as siffiicient 
cause for calling the Yerb Irregular ; since, this would make all such 
Yerbs as Zove, M^e, y?ee, hear ^ lay ^ shoe, etc., Irregular Yerbs. Again, 
if such verbs as love, hate, etc., are Regular, surelj hear ought to be so; 
also, lay, pay, say, etc. Hence, we have not placed them in tlie List of 
Irregular Yerbs. That is, a Yerb sliould be caUed a Regular Yerb, if 
its second and fourth principal parts be formed by suffixing ed, no 
matter how many subsequent contractions be made. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. He ordered the guard to watch the prisoners. The 
guard watched the prisoners. The guard was watching the 
prisoners. The prisoners were watche(i by the guard. 



278 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Grammaiical Analysis or Parsing. Watch is a regular transitive 
simple Verb. It is regular ^ because its second and fourth principal parts, 
waich, watcJiEi)^ are formed by suffixing ed to its verb-root, watch. 

193. Regular Verbs are divided into four kinds or 
classes ; namely, Uncontracted ; Contracted^ Modified^ and 
Contracted and Modified, 

194:. Regular Verhs^ Uncontracted, are those in which 
no change is caused hy suffixing ed. 

2. I directed him to hond the goods and he proceeded to 
ohey me, but I did not stay until he had finished it. 

Directed is a Regular uncontracted Verb ; because, it is formed by 
simply suffixing ed to the verb-root, direct. 

19^. Regular Verbs, Contracted, are those in which one 
■or more vowels are dropjped, when ed is suffixed. 

3. I hate to abridge any one's chance to hear beautiful 
music. 

Hate is a Regular contracted Yerb ; because, the vowel, e, at the end 
of the root, hate^ is dropped, before the suffix, ed, 

4. The people unshod, fled through the deep snow. 

Shod is a Regular contracted Yerb ; because, shoe-ed becomes sho-ed, 
and sho-ed becomes shod; flee-ed becomes y?6-e<i, which becomes fled. 

X96. Regular Verbs, Modified, are those in which one or 
more letters are changed, when ed is suffixed. 

5. The pupil mec?, because he had no time to study \ii^ 
lessons. 

Cried is a Regular modified Yerb ; because, cry-ed is changed to 
cried. 

197. Regular Verbs, Contracted and Modified, are 
those in which one or more vowels are dropped and letters 
changed, when ed is suffixed. 

6. I said that I laid down the money to pay the bill. 

Said is a Regular contracted and modified Yerb ; because, say-ed 
becomes sai-ed = said. 



IRBEGULAR VEKBS. 



279 



Examples of Rkgular Verbs. 



Verb-Root. 



f Prui. Part. 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


Prhicipal Part. 


Prin. Part. 


Prin. Part. 


To ask 


I asked 


asking 


asked 


Abridge 


abridged 


abridging 


abridged 


Bond 


bonded 


bonding 


bonded 


Credit 


credited 


crediting 


credited 


Cry 


cried 


crying 


cried 


Debit 


debited 


debiting 


debited 


Enter 


entered 


entering 


entered 


Flee 


fled 


fleeing 


fled 


Hear 


heard 


hearing 


heard 


Hate 


hated 


hating 


hated 


Love 


loved 


loving 


loved 


Lay 


laid 


laying 


laid 


Mourn. 


mourned 


mourning 


mourned 


Obey 


obeyed 


obeying 


obeyed 


Play 


played 


plajdng 


played 


Pay 


paid 


paying 


paid 


Provide 


provided 


providing 


provided 


Sail 


sailed 


sailing 


sailed 


Say 


said 


saying 


said 


Stay 


stayed 


staying 


stayed 


Shoe 


shod 


shoeing 


shod 


Study 


studied 


studying 


studied 


Walk 


walked 


walking 


walked 



Irregular Verhs. 

1 J)8. An Irregular Yerh is one whose second and fourth 
princijjal parts are not formed hy suffixing ed to the verh-root or 
first principal part, 

7. He desires me to he still. I was still. 

Parsing. Be is an irregular^ intransitive, simple Yerb, from the 

Verb, to he. Its principal parts are ; . It is irregular, because it 

does not form its second and foiu-th principal parts by suf&xing ed to 
the first principal part or verb-root. 

Note II. The principal parts of an Irregular Verb must be learned 
from the List of Irregular Verbs, wliich cannot be studied too care- 
fully nor learned too thoroughly. 

At the beginning of the present century, tliis List contained over 



280 



THE CtRAMMAR of LANGUAGE. 



200 Yerbs. It has been made less by the common and common sense 
tendency of giving Regular forms to Yerbs which have long been used 
as Irregular — a tendency which should be encouraged, because, the 
proper use of the Irregular Yerbs of the Enghsh, or of any other 
language, is one of the most difficrult parts in the study of that lan- 
guage. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

First Prin. Part. Second Prin. Part. Third Prin. Part Fourth Prin. Part 



Pres. Infinitive 


. Imp. Indicative 


Pres. Part. 


Perf. Part. 


To abide 


I abode,or abided abiding 


abode. 


Arise 


arose 


arismg 


arisen. 


Be 


was 


being 


been. 


Bear 


bore, or bare 


bearing 


borne, or born. 


Beat 


beat 


beating 


beaten, or beat. 


Begin 


began 


beginning 


begun. 


Bend 


bent, or bended 


bending 


bent, or bended* 


Bereave 


bereaved, bereft 


bereaving 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech 


besought 


beseeching 


besought. 


Bid 


bid, or bade 


bidding 


bidden, or bid. 


Bind 


bound 


binding 


bound. 


Bite 


bit 


biting 


bitten, or bit. 


Bleed 


bled 


bleeding 


bled. 


Blow 


blew 


blowing 


blown. 


Break 


broke 


breaking 


broken. 


Breed 


bred 


breeding 


bred. 


Bring 


brought 


bringing 


brought. 


Build 


built, or builded 


building 


built, or builded. 


Burst 


burst 


bursting 


burst. 


Buy 


bought 


buying 


bought. 


Cast 


cast 


casting 


cast. 


Catch 


caught, catched 


catching 


cauo^ht, catched. 


Chide 


chid 


chiding 


chidden, or chid. 


Choose 


chose 


choosing 


chosen. 


Cleave 


cleft, or clove 


cleaving 


cleft, or cloven. 


CHng 


cluno^ 


clinging 


clung. 


Clothe 


clothed, or clad 


clothing 


clothed, or clad. 


Come 


came 


coming 


come. 


Cost 


cost 


costing 


cost. 


Crow 


crowed, or crew 


crov/ing 


crowed. 


Creep 


crept 


creeping 


crept. 


Cut 


cut 


cutting 


cut. 


Dare 


dared, or durst 


daring 


dared. 


Deal 


dealt, or dealed 


dealing 


dealt, or dealed. | 


T>W 


ditrged, or dug 


digging 


digged, or dug. 


Do 


did^ 


doing 


done. 


Draw- 


drew 


drawing 


drawn. ! 


Dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreaming 


dreamed, dreamt. 


Drive 


drove 


driving 


driven. 


Drink 


drank 


drinking 


drunk. 


Dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelling 


dwelt, dwelled^ 


Eat 


ate, or eat 


eating 


eaten. j 



lEBEGtJLAE VERBS. 



281 



Pres. Iiifinitive. Imp. Indicative. Pres, Part. 

To fall 

Feed 

Feel 

Fiolit 

Find 

Fling 

Fly 

Forsake 

Freeze 

Get 

Gild 

Gird 

Give 

Go 



Perf. Part. 



vjrrave 

Grind 

Grow 

Han_i^ 

Have 

Heave 

Hew 

Hide 

Hit 

Hold 

Hurt 

Keep 

Kneel 

Knit 

Know 

Lade 

Lean 

Lead 

Leave 

Lend 

Let 

Lie 

Light 

Lose 

Make 

Mean 

Meet 

Mow 

Jfut 

Quit 

Read 

Reave 

Rend 

Rid 



/fell 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

flung 

flew 

forsook 

froze 

got 

gilded, or gilt 

girded, or girt 

gave 

went 

graved 

ground 

grew 

hanged, or hung 

had 

heaved, or hove 

hewed 

hid 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 

kneeled, or knelt 

knit, or knitted 

knew 

laded 

leaned, or leant 

led 

left 

lent 

let 

lay 

lighted, or lit 

lost 

made 

meant 

met 

mowed 

put 

quitted, or quit 

read 

reft, or reaved 

rent 

rid 



falling 


fallen. 


feeding 


fed. 


feeling 


felt. 


fighting 


fought. 


finding 


found. 


flinging 


flung. 


flying 


flown. 


forsaking 


forsaken. 


freezing 


frozen. 


getting 


got, or gotten. 


gilding 


gilded, or gilt. 


girding 


girded, or girt. 


giving 


given. 


going 


gone. 


graving 


graved, or graven. 


grinding 


ground. 


growing 


grown. 


hanging 


hanged, or hung. 


havins: 


had. 


heaving 


heaved, or hoven. 


hewing 


hewed, or hewn. 


hiding 


hidden, or hid. 


hitting 


hit. 


holding 


held. 


hurting 


hurt. 


keeping 


kept. 


kneeling 


kneeled, or knelt. 


knitting 


knit, or knitted. 


knowing 


known. 


lading 


laden, or laded. 


leaning 


leaned, or leant. 


leading 


led. 


leaving 


left. 


lending 


lent. 


letting 


let. 


lying 


lain. 


lighting 


lighted, or lit. 


losing 


lost. 


making 


made. 


meaning 


meant. 


meeting 


met. 


mowing 


mowed, or mown. 


puttmg 


put. 


quitting 


quitted, or quit. 


reading 


read. 


reaving 


reft, or reaved. 


rending 


rent. 


ridding 


rid. 



282 



THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



Pres. Infinitive 


. Imp. Indicative 


Pres. Part. 


Perf. Part. 


To ride 


I rode 


riding 


ridden, or rode. 


Hiiij; 


rung, or rang 


ringing 


rung. 


Kise 


rose 


rising 


risen. 


Hive 


rived 


riving 


riven, or rived. 


Tiuu 


ran 


running 


run. 


Saw 


sawed 


sawing 


sawed, or sawn 


See 


saw 


seemg 


seen. 


Seek 


sought 


seeking 


sought. 


Seethe 


seethed, or sod 


seething 


stethed, sodden. 


Sell 


sold 


selling 


sold. 


Send 


sent 


sending 


sent. 


Set 


set 


setting 


set. 


Shake 


shook 


shaking 


shaken. 


Shave 


shaved 


shaving 


shaved, or shaven. 


Shear 


sheared 


shearing 


sheared, or shorn. 


Shed 


shed 


shedding 


shed. 


Shine 


shone, or shined 


shining 


shone. 


Show 


showed 


showing 


showed, or shown 


Shoot 


shot 


shooting 


shot. 


Shut 


shut 


shutting 


shut. 


Slired 


shred 


shredding 


shred. 


Shrink 


shrunk, or shrank 


shrinking 


shrunk. 


Sing 


sung, or sang 


singing 


sung. 


Sink 


sunk, or sank 


sinking 


sunk. 


Sit 


sat 


sitting 


sat. 


Slay 


slew 


slaying 


slain. 


Sleep 


slept 


sleeping 


slept. 


Slide 


slid 


sliding 


slidden, or slid. 


Slin.g 


slung 


slinging 


slung. 


Slink 


slunk 


slinking 


slunk. 


Slit 


slit, or slitted 


slitting 


slit, or slitted. 


Smite 


smote 


smiting 


smitten, or smit 


Sow 


sowed 


sowing 


sowed, or sown, 


Speak 


spoke 


speaking 


spoken. 


Speed 


sped 


speeding 


sped. 


Spend 


spent 


spending 


spent. 


Spill 


spilt, or spilled. 


spilling 


spilt, or spilled. 


Spin 


spun 


spinning 


spun. 


Spit 


spit, or spar 


spitting 


spit. 


Split 


split. 


splitting 


split. 


Spread 


spread 


spreading 


spread. 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


springing 


sprung. 


Stand 


stood 


standing 


stood. 


Steal 


stole 


stealing 


stolen. 


Stick 


stuck * 


sticking 


stuck. 


Sting 


stung 


stinging 


stung. 


Stride 


strode, or strid 


striding 


stridden. 


Strike 


struck 


striking 


struck. 


String 


strung 


stringing 


strung. 


Strive 


strove 


striving 


striven 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



283 



Pres Infim 


'tive. Imp. Indicative. 


, Pres. Part. 


Perf, Part. 


To strow 


I s trowed 


strowing 


strowed, strown. 


Swear 


swore 


swearing 


sworn. 


Sweat 


sweated, sweat 


sweating 


sweated, or sweat. 


Sweep 


swept 


sweeping 


swept. 


Swell 


swelled 


swelling 


swelled, swollen. 


Swim 


su'um, or swam 


swimming 


swum. 


Swin<5 


swung 


swinging 


swung. 


Take 


took 


taking 


taken. 


Teacli 


taught 


teaching 


taught. 


Tear 


tore 


tearing 


torn. 


Tell 


told 


telling 


told. 


Thmk 


thought 


thinking 


thought. 


Thrive 


thrived, throve 


thriving 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw 


threw, throwed 


throwing 


thrown. 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrusting 


thrust. 


Tread 


trod 


treading 


trodden, or trod. 


Wake 


waked, or woke 


waking 


waked. 


Wax 


waxed 


waxing 


waxen. 


Wear 


wore 


wearing 


worn. 


Weave 


weaved, or wove 


weaving 


weaved, or woven. 


Weep 


wept 


weeping 


wept. 


Win 


won 


winning 


won. 


Wind 


wound 


winding 


wound. 


Wont 


wonted, or wont 


wonting 


wonted, or wont. 


Work 


worked, wrought 


working 


worked, wrought. 


Wring 


wrung 


wringing 


wrung. 


Write 


wrote 


writing 


written. 


Note III. 


The larger portion < 


of the Verbs 


now in the List might 



very easily be changed to Regular forms, as Aphonious as the Irregu- 
lar forms. As : — 

To draw.^ I drawed, drawing^ drawed^ instead of the Irregular forms, 
to draw., I di^ew^ drawing., drawn. 

When a Verb is redundant in form, students should be encouraged 
to use its Regular forms only ; at the same time, they should be made 
acquainted with its Irregular forms, which they would soon learn to 
recognize as Archaisms or obsolete forms. This practice would greatly 
reduce the List of Irregular Verbs, and at the same time, simplify the 
use of these Verbs. 



The Attributes or Properties of Verbs, and the Means of 
knowing them, 

1©9, Third, the Attributes or Prorerties of Yerhs^ 

and tiie Me.^ns of Kn^^ving them. Verbs bave/bi/r 



284 THE GKAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Attributes or Properties; namely, Voice^ Person and 
Number^ Mode^ and Tense. 

YOICE. 

Lit. Def. The word, voice,^ means belonging- to sound, speech. 

2O0. Voice is a logical attnhde, which the verb derives- 
from the logical character of its suhject noun. 

SOI. Verbs have ^2^0 Voices; the Active, and the 

Passive, 

Active Voice. 

S03. The Active Voice is attributed to a verb^ whose sub- 
ject noun names an actor or first primary idea. 

Examples. 

1. As the spangles in the sunny rays 

Shijie around the silver snow, the pageantry 
Of heaven's bright army glitters in thy praise. " 

Parsing. Shine is an irregular, intransitive, simple Yerb, from the 
Yerb, to shine ; its principal parts are ; to sJiine, spangles shone, shining^ 
shone. It has the logical attribute, active Yoice ; because, its subject 
noun^ spangks, names the j^tor or first primary idea. 

2. Has it been^ is it now, a,nd will it again be ? It has 
been, it is now, and will be agEtin. 

3. If I do go, will he stay until I come back? If thou 
dost go, he will stay until thou comest back. 

4. Thy chains, the unmeasured universe surround. 

Parsing, Surround is a Yerb ; from the Yerb, to surround ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It has the logical attribute, active Yoice ; be- 
cause, its subject noun, chains, etc. 



We saw them 



run. 



Parsing. Run [to run] is a Yerb ; from the Yerb, to run ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It has the active Yoice ,• because, its subject 

noun, which is personated by them, names the actor. 

6. The teacher desired the students to study their lessons. 
The teacher desired them to study. 

^ Voice. «, belonging to ; voic = 'coa = toA;, sound, speecli. (See 'vocal^ re/coke,) 



VOICES OF THE VERB. 285 

Pa/rsing. Sii^dy is a Yerb; from the Yerb, to study ; its prin. 

parts are ; — — . It has the active Yoice, because, etc. 

7. Saturn is said to have come into Italy. 

Parsing. Have come is an irregular, intransitive, compound Yerb ; 
from the Yerb, to come : its prin. parts are ; — — . It has the logical 
attribute, active Yoice ; because its subject noun, Saturn^ is, etc. 

8. " Love thy neighbor as thyself" has the highest author- 
ity ; because, it is a Divine precept. 

Parsing. Has is an irregular, intransitive, simple Yerb ; from the 

Yerb, to have; its prin. parts are; . It has the logical attribute, 

active Yoice ; because, its clause subject noun, love thy neighbor as thy- 
self^ is the actor or first primary idea. 

Passive Yoice. 

Lit. Def. The word, passive,^ means like the receiver. 

S03. The Passive Voice is attributed to a verb, ivhose sub- 
ject noun names the receiver or third primary idea. 

9. The unmeasured universe is surrounded by Thy chains. 

Parsing, Is surrounded is a regular, transitive, compound Yerb, from 
the Yerb, to surround ; its prin. parts are ; . It has the logical at- 
tribute, passive Yoice ; because, its subject noun, universe^ names the 
receiver or third primary idea. 

10. They ivere seen to run. 

Parsing. Were seen [was seen] is a Yerb ,• from ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It has the logical attribute, passive Yoice ; be- 
cause, its subject noun, they [them] to run, names the receiver or third 
primary idea. (See Chap. III., Predicates.) 

11. "Dust thou art, to dust returnest" ivas not spoken of 
the soul. 

Parsing. Was spoken is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts 

are ; > It has the passive Yoice ; because, its clause subject noun, 

etc. 

XoTE I. The Transitive are the only Yerbs which can have the 
Passive Yoice> Intransitive Yerbs cannot have the Passive Yoice. 
Hence, the absurdity of the expression, " Passive Yerbs are Intransi- 
tive ; " and also of the expression, '• When a Transitive Yerb is put 
into the Passive Yoice, it becomes Intransitive." 

' Passive, ive ; s-=^, ; pas = pat., receives, ^ee patience^ paiUni^ 



286 THTE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Note TI. Some Yerbs, naturally transitivej are seldom used in tlio 
Passive Voice; as, I have a hat, whose passive form, A hat is had hij 
me, is seldom used, although grammatically correct. Eor the Passive 
form of the Verb, to have, the Passive form of the Yerbs, to hold, to 
own, is commonly used ; as, A hat is ovjned by me. In a few instances, 
to have is used in sentences passively constructed ; as* Thy works are 
had in remembrance before me. The possession of the land is held by the 
guardians of the children. TJie gua/rdians of the children have the pos- 
session of the land. 

Note III. In the Latin and Greek languag-es, some Yerbs are found, 
which are always used in the passive forms or modifications, while 
their subject nouns are names of actors or first primary ideas. These 
are called Deponent Yerbs. 

The Means of KNOwma the Voices of Verhs. 

S©4. The Yoice of a Yerb may be known in two 

ways ;- — 

Fii'-st By its form only. A Verb in any form, wMch 
is not periphrastic, is the Active Voice. 

12. I am. He is. They are. 

The Yerb, am, is in its simple form ; hence, it is known to be in the 
active Yoice. 

13. I do think. He does think. They did think. 

The Yerb, do think, is its emphatic form ; hence, it is known to be 
in the active Yoice. 

Second. By the principal Verb of a periphrastic form. 
When the principal Verb of a periphrastic form ends 
in ing., or is the third principal part, the Verb is in the 
Active Voice ; but, when the principal Verb is the 
fourth principal part, the Verb is in its Passive Voice. 

14. The man was driving the horses. The girls were dan- 
cing in the hall. 

The Yerb, was driving^ may be known to be in the Active Yoice, 
because it is a periphrastic form, whose principal Yerb, driving, is the 
third principal part of the Yerb, to drive. It may also be known by 
the suffix, ing, of the verb-root, drive. 



PEKSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS, 287 

15. The horses were driven by the man. The parents 
were obeyed by their children. 

The Yerb, were driven, may be known to be in the Passivo Voice, 
because it is periphrastic, and has driven, the fourth principal part of 
the Verb, to drive, as its principal Verb. 

Person and Number of Verbs. 

20o. Person and Number are attributed to a verb^ whose 
subject noun is in the nominative case. 

Note I. The idea seems to be that attributing the Person and Num- 
ber of a subject to its Verb, hmits the action of the Verb to the same 
relation to the narration, and to the same number of actions, as the re- 
lation and number of the individuals, belonging to the subject noun. 
Hence, when these attributes are attributed to the Verb, the Verb is 
said to be Limited by the Person and Number of its subject noun ; but, 
when the Person and Number of the subject noun are not attributed 
to its Verb, the Verb is said to be Unlimited by the Person and Num- 
ber of its subject noun. 

Examples. 

1. Am I here? I am here. Are we here? We are 
here. 

Grammatical Analysis. Am is an irregular intransitive simple Verb, 

from the Verb, to he ; its prin. parts are ; -, It is in the active 

voice, and has the rhetorical attributes, first Person and singular Num- 
ber, Am is limited by the first Person and singular Number, because 
its subject noun, the name of the narrator personated by /, is in the 
nominative case and has these attributes. 

2. Do I, John, write these things? I, John, do lurite these 
things. 

3. Are the wild birds singing their native songs? The 
wild birds are singing their native songs. 

4. Art thou here ? Thou art here. Are ye here ? Ye 
are here. 

Parsing. Art is Verb ; from the Verb, ; its prin. parts 

are ; . It is in the active voice, and is limited by the second Person 

and the singular ^wxnhQV \ because, its subject noun, the name of the 
narratee, personated by thou, is in the nominative case, and has the 
lec. per. and sing, number. 



288 THE GRAMMAH OF LANGUAGE. 

5. John is here, and Sarah is here, so that both persons 
are here. 

Is has the attributes, active voice, tlm^d Person and the singular 
Number; because, its subject, Jolin^ etc. 

Note II. When the subject nouns of a compound contracted sen- 
tence, joined by the connector and^ are the only parts expressed, the 
Yerb must be hmited by the Plural Number. 

6. John is studying, and James is studying, and Jane is 
studying, and Martha is studjdng. John, James, Jane, and 
Martha are studying. 

Are studying has the active voice, third Person, and the plural num- 
ber. Are studying is limited by the 'plural Number, although its own 
subject, Martha, is in the singular: because, it is the only verb ex- 
pressed in a compound contracted sentence, whose clauses are joined 
by tlie connector, and. 

7. Either John is standing, or James is standing. Either 
John or James is standing. 

The last Yerb, is standing, is limited by the third Person, and singu- 
lar Number, according to the general condition on which Yerbs take 
Person and Number. Is standing is not limited by the plural Number, 
like the Yerb, are standing^ because the clauses to which it belongs are 
not joined by the connector, and. 

8. "The Wreckers Daughter" is a fine musical composi- 
tion. 

The Yerb, ?'s, in this example, is limited by the third Person, and 
the singular Number, because its phrase subject noun, The Wrecker^s 
Daughter^ is in the nom. case, and has the third person and singular 
number. 

9. For a person to err is human, but for a person to forgive 
is divine. For one to err is human, for one to forgive is 
divine. To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 

10. They loere knoivn to be the men by the officer. 

The Yerb, ivere known, is really the affirmer of the clause subject, 
they [them] to be the men, and therefore, should be limited by the per- 
son and number of its clause subject noun, which are the third person 
an<Ltlie singular : but, instead of this, the Yerb, were knoiun, is limited 
by liie third Person and the plural Number, as if it were really the 
affirmer of the subject noun, personated by they. This may be illus- 
trated by comparing this passively constructed with its corresponding 
actively constructed sentence. 



PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. 



289 



Actively. The officer knew them to be the men. 
Passively, real form. Them to be the men was known by the officer. 
Passively, apparent form. They were known to be the men by the 
officer. 

11. T\iQj luere requested \ij ihQ invalid to give him some 
water. 

Actively. The invaUd requested them to give him some water. 
True Passive. Them to give him some water, was requested by the 
invahd. 

Note III. Since Person and Number are nierely rhetorical attri* 
butes, and are attributed to a Yerb when its subject noun is really in 
the Nominative Case, it follows, as a matter of course, that Person and 
Number are not to be attributed to a Yerb whose subject noun is not 
in the Nominative Case. That is, Number and Person are not attrib- 
uted to a Yerb, whose subject noun is in the Objective, or in the Pos- 
sessive Case. 

12. He is said to have come into Italy. 

The Yerb, have come, is not limited by the person and number of its 
subject, which is personated by he, because this subject is apparently 
in the nominative, but reaUy in the objective case. 

13. Jane heard the birds [to] sing. 



Comparative Parsing. 



a. Heard is limited ; because, it 
takes Person and Number. 

&. Heard takes person and num- 
her; because, its subject noun, Jane, 
has the Nominative Case. 

c. The subject noun, Jane, has 
the nominative case; because, it is 
the subject of an independent 
clause. 

d. The subject of an indepen- 
dent clause is put in the nomina- 
tive case, to show that its clause is 
act to be taken with another, un- 
less joined by a connector, or by a 
relative adjunct. 

14. The teacher urged the boys to study their lessons. 
The teacher urged them to study. 
13 



a. Sing (to sing) is unlimited; 
because, it takes neither Person 
nor Number. 

&. Sing has neither person nor 
number ; because, its subJL-ct noun, 
hirds, has the Objective Case. 

c. The subject noun, Mrds, has 
the objective case; because it is the 
subject of a clause dependent in 
form. 

d. The subject noun of a depen- 
dent clause is put in the objective 
Case, to show that its claase is to 
be taken with another, without a 
connector, or a relative adjunct. 



290 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Parsing. Study is a regular transitive, simple Yerb, ; from the 

Verb, ; its principal parts are ; . It has the active voice, 

and is not limited by Person and Number. Study does not have 
Person and Number, because its subject, loys^ is in the objective case. 

15. The rules required the people to he huilding houses. 

Be huilding is not limited by Person and Number ; because, its sub- 
ject noun, people^ is in the objective case. 

16. For them to behave ill is discreditable to them. It is 
discreditable for them to behave ill. 

17. I heard of him being in the city. I heard of his being 
in the citj. 

The Yerb, being, is not limited by Person and Number ; because, 
one of its subjects, personated by him, is in the objective case ; and, 
because its other subject, personated by his, is in the possessive case. 
(See Nouns, Cases of Subjects.) 



The Means of knowing the Person and Number of Verbs. 

306. The Person and Number of a Verb may be 
known in two ways ; — 

First. By a reference to its subject. The Person and 
Number of a Verb may always be known by a reference 
to its subject noun in the nominative case. In the 
English language, this is the only means, when the sub- 
ject noun is in the first person of the singular, or is in 
any person of the plaral number. 

18. I love. We love. Ye or you love. They love. 

In this example, the only means for finding the Number and Person 
of the Yerb, love, is by a reference to its subject. Bj referring, we 
find ; first, that each subject is in the nominative case, and hence that 
Number and Person must be attributed to its Yerb. Second, by Ihid- 
ing the Person and Number of the subject, we find what Person and 
Number are to be attributed to its Yerb. 

If, by reference, we find the subject in the possessive or in the ob- 
jective case, we know that neither Person nor number is to be attrib- 
uted to the Yerb. 

Second. By a suffix modification. In the English 
language, the second person of the singular number 



1 



MODES OF THE VERB. 291 

may be known by one of the suffixes, est^ sf, or t^ at- 
tached either to the principal Verb, or one of its aux- 
iliaries ; while, the third person of the singular number 
may generally be known by one of the suffixes, es or 5, 
€th or th^ attached either to the principal Verb or one of 
its auxiliaries. 

19. Thou doest well. Thou dost do well. Thou did^^ well. 
Thou didst love thy neighbor. Thou ar^ here. Thou ar^ 
reading. 

The Yerb, doest^ may be known to have the Third Person, and 
Singular Number by observing the modification of the Yerb, do, caused 
by the suffix, est. 

20. He does well. He does do well. He labors. He 
does labor. 

The Yerb, does, may be known to have the Third Person and Singu- 
lar Number by its suffix, es. 

Note I. The terminations, est, and st, in the Second Person Singular, 
and eth in the Third, are used in the Bible, and in solemn address. 
They are also used by the poets, and by the Friends or Quakers. 

Note II. Many of these forms are contracted, sometimes with, and 
sometimes without the apostrophe ; as, — 

Maye5^ is contracted into may^st, or mayst. 
Mightesi " • " mighfst, or mightst. 

Could&s^ " " could' st, or couldst. 

Note III. Some are permanent contractions ; as, canst, dost, didst, 
hast, liadst, woM, wert, doth, saith, hath, etc. 

Note IY. In familiar discourse, the Friends commonly use the Third 
Person Singular, instead of the Second; except in the Present and 
Perfect Tenses. 

Modes of the Yerb. 

Lit. Def. The word, mode,^ means shape, form. 

90T. Mode is a logical attribute, luMch the Verh derives 
from the narrator^ s mood (^feeling, passion^ emotion), in regard 
to the thought narrated. 

^ Mode, e, belonging to; mod^ shape, form, etc. (See modificaUon.) 



292 THE GEAMMAE OF LAIS^GUAGE. 

Note I. The student may perceive that thfe definition of Mode does 
not include the Potential. Eor the reason of this omission, see Potent 
tial Mode. 

208. In the English, language, the Verb has six 
Modes ; called, the Infinitive^ the Participial^ the Indic- 
ative^ the Imperative^ the Potential^ and the Subjunctive ; 
of which the Indicative, the Imperative, and the Po- 
tential are used bbth in simple and compound sentences ; 
while, the Infinitive, the Participial, and the Subjunc- 
tive are used in compound sentences only. 

Note II. Those who prefer to use the Interrogative Mode can de- 
fine it as a Mode used in ashing questions, striking from the definition 
of the Indicative Mode, that part which describes it as being used in 

asking questions. 

S®9. Classification of Modes, Modes, according 
to the limitation of the Verb by person and number, are 
divided into two kinds ; the Unlimited or Infinite Modes, 
and the Limited or Finite Modes. 

Lit. Def. The words, unlimited,^ infinite^^ mean not hounded, not 

fenced. 

310. Unlimited or Infinite Modes are those in which the 
\ierh is not limited hy person and nv/niher. They are the In- 
finitive., and, in Enghsh, the Participial Modes. 

Note I. In all languages, the Indicative, the Imperative, the Poten- 
tial, and the Subjunctive are Limited or Finite ; and the Infinitive is an 
Unlimited or Infinite Mode. 

In the English, and a few other languages, the Participial is an Un- 
limited or Infinite Mode ; while, in most languages, as in the Latin and 
Che Greek, etc., the Participial is a Limited or Finite Mode, having the 
,'hetorical attributes, G-ender, Person, Number, and Case. 



1 Untjmtted. (i)fed, condition of that which ; Urn =^n, limit, bound. 

2 Ikpinite. (i)te, belonging to that which ; ^ = Mm^ fenc©, bound. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 293 

Infinitive Mode, 

311. The Infinitive Mode is attributed to a verh not lim- 
ited by person and number^ and is used in historic or declarative 
dependent clauses. 

Examples. 

1. He desired the boys to be quiet. He required the man 
to attend to the business. 

Grammatical Analysis. Be is an irreg., intrans., simple Yerb ; from 

the Yerb, to be ; its prin. parts are ; . It has the act. voice, no 

person and number, iyifinitive Mode. It has the infinitive Mode, because 
it has neither person nor number and is used in a historic or declarative 
dependent clause. 

Attend is a Yerb; from the Yerb, ; its prin. parts are; 

. It has the act. voice, imlimited by person and number, infin- 
itive Mode. It has the infinitive Mode, because, etc. 

2. He wished the students to be studying their lessons. 
He wished the lessons to be studied bj the students. 

Parsing. Be studying is a reg., trans., comp. Yerb ; from the Yerb, 

; its prin. parts are ; . It has the act. voice, unlimited 

by person and number. It has the logical attribute, infinitive Mode ; 
because, it is .without person and number, and is used in a historic or 
declarative sentence. 

Be studied is in the passive voice, unlimited by person and number, 
and in the infinitive Mode ; etc. 

3. The girls ought to take exercise in the open air. Exer- 
cise ought to be taken in the open air by the girls. 

Take is in the infinitive Mode; because, it is unlimited by person 
and number, and is used in a historic or declarative sentence. Take 
is without person and number, because its subject noun, girls^ under- 
stood, is in the objective case. The subject noun, girls, is in the ob- 
jective case, because it is the subject of a first object clause, joined to 
another by its form. 

Note I. The student must bear in mind that the person and num- 
ber of a Yerb are rhetorical attributes, given to the Yerb, when its 
subject noun is really in the nominative case ; and, that they are not 
to be given to the Yerb, when its subject noun is not in the nominative 
case ; or, when the subject noun is in the objective, or in the possessive 
case. 

4. I may [to! go to town. You can [to] read very well. 
The work must [to] be done immediately. 

5. Jane heard the birds [to] sing. 



294 THE GRAMMAE OF LANGUAGE. 



Comparative Parsing, 



a. The Verb^ heard, is limited 
by person and number ; because, 

its subject noun, Jane, is in the 
nominative case. 

l). Heard is in the Indicative 
Mode ; because, it is limited by 
person and number, and is used in 
a historic or declarative sentence. 



a. The Yerb sing^ is not limited 
by person and number; because,. 
its subject noun, Mrds^ is in the 
objective case. 

&. Sing is in the infinitive Mode ; 
because, it is not limited by per- 
son and number, and is used in a 
historic or declarative sentence. 



6. The horses were seen to run by the man. They were 
seen to run bj the man. 

Parsing. To run is Yerb ; act. voice, not limited by per. and 

num., infinitive Mode. It has the infinitive, because it is used in a his- 
toric clause, and is not limited. It is not limited, because, its subject, 
horses [them], is really in the objective case. Its subject, horses [them], 
is reaUy in the objective; because, it is the subject of a dependent 
clause, connected by its form. Its subject, horses [them], is aioj)a~ 
rently in the nominative [horses, they], to show that the whole sentence 
is not joined to another sentence. 

7. To do good is to be bappy. 

Parsing. Do is a Yerb ; because, it is a predicate of a vague or 
general subject, to which its relation is shown by the relator, to. It 
is an irregular, transitive, simple verb. Its attributes are active voice, 
infinitive Mode. 

8. He urged the boys to be washed and to be dressed in 
good season. 

Participial Mode, 

Lit. Def. The word, ^ar^i'a^jmZ,^ means thai which shares or par- 
takes. 

313. In the English language^ the Participial Mode is 
attrihuted to a verh^ lohich is unlimited hy person and number ., 
and is used in periphrastic forms of compound verhs^ in adjunct 
'phrases^ and in adjunct andj second object clauses. 

Examples. 
1. Periphrastic Forms of the Verb. Is he doing the work? 
He is doing the work. Is the work done by him ? The work 
is done by him. 

1 Participial, ial, — ; cy:) = cep, takes ; part(i), share, portion, That is, 
belonging to that which partakes or shares with another. 



LIMITED OR FINITE MODES. 295 

Go^ammatical Analysis. Doing is an irreg., trans., simp. Yerb ; from 

the Verb, to do; its prin. parts are; . It has the attributes, 

active •, without person and number, participial Mode. It has the 

logical attribute, participial Mode, because it seems to share with the 
Verb, is^ in its subject noun, personated by /le, which should be him. 

The original of this seems to have been ; Him doing the work is ; 
hence. He is doing the work is similar to He is said to have come. Done 
has tlie passive voice, is not limited by person and number, imrticipial 
Mode. It has the logical attribute, participial Mode, because it seems 
to share with the Verb, is^ in its subject noun, work. The work done 
by him is. 

2. Adjunct Phrase. The boy, being diligent, won the prize. 
The boy, through his being diligent, won the prize. 

Being has the participial Mode ; because, it is without person and 
number, and is used in an adjunct phrase of boy ; hence, it seems tc 
participate or share in subject noun with the principal Verb, won. It 
may be parsed as the affirmer of a second object clause, joined to the 
affirmer by the relator, through, or by. In each construction, the Mode 
is the same. 

3. Adjunct Clause. I had no idea of his reading so well. 

The Verb, reading, has the logical attribute, participial Mode; 
because, it is without person and number, and is used in an adjunct 
clause, its subject being personated by his. 

4. We perceived a noble ship, buffeting the waves. "We 
perceived a noble ship, which noble ship was buffeting the 
waves. 

5. We had heard of Henry's selling his farm. 

Parsing. Selling is an irreg., trans., simp. Verb; from the Verb, to 

sell; its prin. parts are ; ; active voice, without person and number, 

and in the participial Mode. It has the logical attribute, participial 
Mode, because it is without person and number, and is in a second 
object clause. 

Note I. In many languages, the Participial Mode is a limited or 
finite Mode, when it has the rhetorical attributes, gender, number, case. 



Limited or Finite Modes. 

313. The Limited or Finite Modes are those in which 
the verb is linnited by person and number. 

They are the Indicative^ the Imperative^ the Potential^ and 
the Subjunctive Modes. 



296 THE GIIA]\.I:>IAR OF LANGUAGE. 



Indicative Mode. 

Lit. Def. The word, indicatives'^ means like that which tells about 
[something]. 

214. The Indicatiye Mode is attributed to a verh^ which 
has person and number and is used in a historic or declarative^ 
in an interrogative^ in a responsive^ or in an exclamative 
sentence. 

Examples. 

1. Historic or Declarative. The evil, that men do^ lives 
after them ; the good is oft interred with their bones. 

Gramraaiical Analysis. Do is an irreg., trans., simp. Yerb; from 

the Verb, to do ; its prin. parts are ; . Its attributes are act. 

voice, third, singular, indAcative Mode. It has the logical attribute, 
indicative Mode, because it is limited by person and number, and is 
used in a historic or declarative sentence. 

2. Interrogative. Where is that land where peddlers go ? 

Parsing. Is is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, active, third, singular indicative Mode. It has 
the logical attribute, indicative Mode, because it takes person and num- 
ber, and is used in an interrogative sentence. 

Or, those who use an interrogative Mode, would give the attributes 
of the Yerb, is ; active, thhd, singular, interrogative Mode ; etc. 

3. Responsive. 'Tis Echo answers, " Eeallj, I do not 
hnoioJ^ 

4. Exclamative. How strange it seems I All now is calm 
where late wild terror reigned! 

Note I. The student must observe that we have two historic or 
declarative Modes, the Infinitive^ and the Indicative ; and, that the dis- 
tinction between them is this; the Infinitive is an unlimited infinite 
historic or declarative Mode, while the Indicative is a limited ov finite 
historic or declarative Mode. 

Imperative Mode. 
Lit. Def. The word, imperative,'^ means like that which orders. 

^15. The Imperative Mode is attributed to a verb used in 
commanding^ entreating^ permitting ^ etc. 

1 1^^)1CATIYE. atwe, ; die, tells, points, speaks ; in, concerning, about. 

2 BiPEEATivE. ati/0€^ ; per, over, above ; im, in, and Is used intensively. 

13* 



POTENTIAL MODE. 297 

Examples. 

1. Commanding, Throw down your arms, and disperse. 

Parsing. Throw is a Verb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; 

— . It has the imperaiive Mode; because, it is hmited by person 
and number, and is used in a command. 

2. Entreating. Give us this day our daily bread. Grant 
us thy favor. 

3. Permitting. Enter ^ my lords, and take your rest. 

4. Apologizing, Excuse me, sir. 

5. Exhorting, Awake, and let your songs resound. 

Potential Mode, 
Lit. Def. The word, potential,- means dehnging to power, ability. 

31G. The Potential Mode is formed hy taking a verh in 
the Indicative, vnth a Verh in the Infinitive, both verbs having, 
logically, the same subject. The Indicative part is one of the 
verbs, may, can, must, could, would, should, used to express 
the duty, liberty, ability, or necessity of the act named or expressed 
hy an Infinitive part. 

Note I. From the definition, it is easily perceived that the Potential 
Mode is merely a convenient name for certain conditions, under whicli, 
a Verb in the Indicative, and a Yerb in the Infinitive, may be taken 
together. These conditions are; first, the subject of the two Yerbs 
must be the same, logically ; while, grammatically, one is in the 
Nominative, and the other is in the Objective case.; second, the first 
Yerb must be in the Indicative, the second in the Infinitive Mode; 
third, the first Yerb must express duty, liberty, ability, or necessity in 
regard to the performance of a certain act by the subject, this act itself 
being named by the second Yerb ; fourth, that the relator of the Infini- 
tive must be understood. We perceive also, that by parsing one part 
as a Yerb in the Indicative, and the other as a Yerb in the Infinitive, 
the term. Potential, would not be required. The Potential Mode is 
un philosophical; because, it is based on an arbitrary distinction among 
Yerbs, according to which, the number of Modes might be indefinitely 
increased. The Conjugation of the English Yerb would be greatly 
simplified by rejecting this Mode. 

^ Potential {i)al, ; ^, sometliiiig ; en^ being ; pot =pos, ability, power. 



298 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



Examples. 

i. Liberty, May the boy stvAy his lessons ? The bo J 
maj study his lessons. The boy may [to] study his lessons. 

Usual Parsing. May study is a reg., trans., comp. Verb; from the 

Verb, ; its prin. parts are ; . Its attributes are, voi-ce. 

persons, number, potential Mode. It has the potential Mode, 

because it is an Indicative, may^ used with an Infinitive, study, both 
Yerbs having, logically, the same subject, boy, expressed with the In- 
dicative, and understood with the Infinitive. 

Better Mode of Parsing. May is a defective Yerb, never used except 
as an auxiliary ; its prin. parts are wanting. Its attributes are, active^ 
third, singular, indicative Mode. It has the indicative Mode, because 
it is used, etc. 

Study is a Yerb ; from the Yerb, ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, active, no person, no number, infinitive Mode. It 
has the infinitive Mode, because it is used in a clause dependent in 
form, which is interrogative, or, etc. 

2. Might the boy study his lessons ? 

3. Ahility. Can the boy study his lessons? The boy 
can [to] study his lessons. 

4. Could the boy study his lessons ? The boy could study 
his lessons. 

5. Duty. Should the boy study his lessons ? The boy 
should study his lessons. 

6. Necessity. Must the boy study his lessons ? The boy 
must study his lessons. 

7. Willingness. Would the girl read the lesson? The 
girl would read the lesson. 

Note II. The auxiliary Yerbs, may, can, must, might, could, would, 
should, are called the Sign of the Potential Mode, That is, the Indica- 
tive part is called the Sign of the Potential Mode. 

Note III. There are many instances of an Indicative followed by an 
Infinitive, both having, logically, the same Gubject, which grammarians 
do not put in the Potential Mode, simply because the relator, to, is ex- 
pressed; as, John intends to go to town; in which intends is parsed as 
a Yerb in the Indicative Mode, go, as a Yerb in the Infinitive, referring 
to its subject noun, John, understood, to which it is related by to. The 
amplified form of this example is ; John intends John to go to town ; 
John intends himself to go to town. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 299 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Lit. Def. The word, subjunctive^'^ means like that which has been 
yoked under [another]. 

317. The Subjunctive Mode is attributed to a verb used 
in a clause expressing a condition^ or a supposition or hypothesis^ 
and joined to another clause by a subordinate connector. 

Examples. 

1. Condition, I shall not go to town if it rain to-day ; or, 
if it rains to-day. 

Parsing. The Yerb, rain, rains^ has the attribute, subjunctive 
Mode; because, it is Umited by person and number, and is used in a 
conditional clause which is joined to the affirmer, shall go^ of another 
clause ; by the subordinate connector, if. 

2. Sujposition or Hypothesis. The surface will be square, 
if its width be equal to its length. 

3. If the fractional parts of a unit be joined, their sum is 
equivalent to the unit. 

Note I. Either the Indicative or the Potential Mode must be 
attributed to the Yerb of a subordinate clause, which is joined to its 
principal by a relative adjunct; but, the Subjunctive Mode must be 
attributed to the Yerb of a subordinate clause joined to its principal by 
a subordinate connector. 

4. The child sleeps while the mother sings. 

The Yerb, sings^ has the Indicative Mode ; because, it is the Yerb 
of the subordinate clause, while the mother sings, which is joined to its 
principal, the child sleeps, by the relative adjunct, while. 

5. The child sleeps if the mother sing ; or, if the mother 

sings. 

The Yerb, sing, sings, has the subjunctive Mode ; because, it is the 
Yerb of the subordinate clause, the mother sing or sings, joined to its 
principal clause, the child sleeps, by the subordinate connector, if. 

Note II. The student must observe that, as we have iiuo Modes, 
which are historic or declarative, so we have two Modes, which are 
used in adjunctive, and conditional or limiting clauses ; namely, the 

* Subjunctive, tive, ; Juno =jung, yoked, joined ; sub, under, lower. 

That is, belonging to an under or lower value. 



300 THE GEAMMAE OF LA:^rGLTAGE. 

Sutjmictive, and the Farticipial. The Subjunctive being a limited or a 
finite Mode, used in a clause joined by a subordinate connector to the 
predicate, or to an adjunct word of another clause, thus being an ad- 
junctive clause ; while, the Participial Mode is an unlimited or infinite 
Mode, used either in a second object or an adjunct clause. 

'6. Nay, they will not be convinced, although one rise from 
the dead. 

7. Unless he remains qnietly, he will be sent from the 
room. 

8. He may leave the room if he can go out quietly. 

9. He need not commence the work unless he can finish it 
to-day. 

Means of Kxowixa the Modes of Verbs. 

218. The Modes of Verbs are known in five w^ays ; — 

First. By a reference to the mood (feeling, passion, 

emotion), belonging to the thought expressed by the 

sentence. 

Second. By the auxiliary Verbs. May^ can^ must^ 

mighty could^ woidcl^ and slioidd^ are used as auxiliaries 

in the Potential Mode only, and hence, are signs of the 

Potential Mode. 

Examples. 

1. I may read. I can read. I must read. I might read 
I could read. I would read. I should read. 

2. Thou mayest or mayst read. Thou canst read. Thou 
must read. Thou mightest or mightst read. Thou couldest or 
couldst read. Thou wouldest or wouldst read. Thou should- 
est or shouldst read. 

Third. By a subordinate connector. A subordinate 
connecter shows that the Verb of its subordinate clause 
is in the Subjunctive Mode. 

Note I. In the English language, when a Yerb is in the Subjunc- 
tive, the second and third persons of the singular number are some- 
times used without suffixes. 



MEANS OF KNOWING THE MODES, 301 

Note II. In the English, the Yerb has no form or mode to show tlie 
Subjunctive Mode, except in its Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Form. 

This Mode is shown by using a hmiting connective before a sen- 
tence, whose Yerb is in the Indicative, or in the Potential; so that,, 
while the four Simple or Real, and also the Compound Mode, are 
shown by the form or construction of the Yerbs themselves, the Sub- 
junctive Mode is shown by the character^ or use of the sentence, or even 
by the connective, since this indicates the character, or use of the sen- 
tence; hence, in English, we have Subjunctive Sentences instead of 
Subjunctive Verbs. 

Whenever a Subjunctive is used in those languages, whose Yerbs 
have distinct Subjunctive Forms, the connection of the sentence is al- 
ways shown by a limiting connective, so that nothing is gained by 
having the Subjunctive Form of the Yerb, since the use of the Yerb 
may be known by the connective. In this respect, therefore, the Eng- 
lish is the simpler, because it is less encumbered with useless forms. 

3. If 1 hear. If thou Aear. If he hear, 

4. If I heard. If thou heard. If he heard. 

5. If thou desh^e it, we will go. If he come, we must stay. 
If thou heard him, why didst thou not answer ? 

Fourth. By the relator^ TO. In the English language, 
the relation of a Yerb in the Infinitive Mode to its own 
subject is always shown by the relator, to^ either ex- 
pressed or understood. (See Chap. III., Relators.) 
Hence, the relator, to, when used to show the relation 
of an affirmer to its own subject, is called " The Sign of 
the InfinitiYe Mode." 

6. Did you ask me to bring the books to you ? To strive 
is to thrive. For one to strive is for one to thrive. 

Fifth. By a suffix modification. One form of the 
Verb in the Participial Mode is made by suffixing ing 
to the verb-root. 

7. The ship, being [be-ing] ready, set sail. 



802 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Tenses. 

Lit. Def. The word, tense^'^ means stretchy relation^ hold. 

319. Tense is a logical attrihute^ which the verb derives 
from the relation between the time of the action or event narrated 
and the time of the narration or now. 

Note L The time of the narration is always supposed to be now or at 
the present time ; while, the time of the event or action narrated may 
be the same as the time of narration, or the time of the aetion may be 
before the time of the narration, or it may be after the time of the nar- 
ration; hence, that attribute or property of the Yerb, by which the 
narrator shows the relation between the time of his narration, which 
is now^ and the time of the event or action, is very properly called the 
tense or the relation between the times of two events or actions. 

220. The English Verb has six Tenses ; namely, 

the Present^ the Indefinite Past or the Imperfect, the 

First Definite Past or the Perfect^ the Second Definite 

Past or the Pluperfect^ the Indefinite Future or the 

First Future., and the Definite Future or the Second 

Future, 

Note IL Of the two modes of naming Tenses, given above, the 
first is based on the relation between the time of the action or event, 
and the time of its narration ; the second is based on the completeness 
or the incompleteness of the action narrated. 

Note III. For convenience, the Indefinite Past or the Imperfect 
Tense sometimes is called the Past Tense ; and, for the same reason, 
the Indefinite Future or the First Future is called the Future Tense. 

Note IY. The number of the Tenses, belonging to a Yerb, will differ 
according to the different ways of distinguishing the relations between 
the two times, the one of narration, the other of action or event; 
hence, the difference between the number of Tenses belonging to the 
Yerbs of different languages. 

1 Tensk. 6, belonging to ; e = ^, that which ; ^en, stretches, relates, holds. Th«. 
root, ten^ is not from the root, temp. This is evident; first, from the fact that inp 
are not cognates of ns, and hence, one is never exchanged for the other ; second, 
no word whose root is tend, tens, or tent, ever conveys the least allusion to time ; 
while, every word, having any one of these roots, signifies a relation, a joining, a 
sfretcJiing, or a holding together, between two or more. Thus, it iendeth to 
po'eerty ; i. e., it' leadeth to poverty ; attend, stretch toward; contend, stretch to- 
gether; distend, stretch apart, etc., etc. 



CLASSIFICATION OF TENSES. 303 

Tense Forms. 

S21. The Tenses of a Verb in the a.ctive voice have 
the Simple^ the Emphatic^ and the Periplirastic Forms ; 
while, in the Passive voice, they have the Periphrastic 
Form only ; hence, these are called Tense Forms. (See 
Chap. Ill, Pi^edicates.) 

Simple Tense Forms* 

333. The Simple Forms of each Tense are made ac- 
cording to special Eules given under each Tense. 

Emphatic Tense Forms. 

333. The Emphatic Forms of each Tense may be 
made according to special Rules, or according to the 
following General Rule ; — 

334:. Rule I. The Emphatic Form of a Tense must he 
made hy using the verh-root or first principal part as the princi- 
pal verh^ with the corresponding Mode and Tense of the verh^ to 
DO, as its auxiliary. 

Periphrastic Tense Forms. 

333. The Periphrastic Form of a Tense may be 
made according to special Rules, or according to the 
following General Rule ; — 

Rule II. The Periphrastic Form of a Tense must he made hy 
using the third principal part in the active voice^ and the fourth 
2')rincipal part in the passive voice, as the priiicipal verh, with 
the corresponding Mode and tense of the verh^ to be, as its 
auxiliary. 

Classification of Tenses. 

336. Classifications. Tenses are classified in 
two ways ; Jirst^ according to their lim^itation ; second^ 
according to the time of the narration. 



804 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

227. First Classification. According to their limi' 
tation^ Tenses are divided into the Indefinite^ and the 
Definite Tenses. 

238. An Indefinite Tense is a tense which is not limited 
hy a tense of the auxiliary verh^ to haye. 

229. The Indefinite Tenses are the Present^ the In- 
definite Past or the Imperfect^ and the Indefinite Future 
or the First Future. 

230. A Definite Tense is a tense which is limited hy a 
tense of the auxiliary verl^ to haye. 

231. The Definite Tenses are the First Definite Past 
or the Perfect^ the Second Definite Past ox XhQ Pluperfects 
and the Definite Future or the Second Future. 

232. Second Classification of Tenses. According 

to the time of the narration^ Tenses are divided into 

three kinds ; called, the Present^ the Past^ and the 

Future. 

Present Tense. 

Lit. Def. The word, present^^ means belonging to that which is he/ore 
[us]. 

233. A Present Tense is one in which the time of the event 
or action narrated occurs at the time of the narration. 

Past Tenses. 
Lit. Def. The word, past,"^ means that which has been received. 

234. A Past Tense is one in which the time of the event 
or action occurred before the time of the narration. 

235. The Past Tenses are the Indefinite Past or the 
Imperfect^ the First Definite Past or the Perfect Tense, 
and the Second Definite Past or the Pluperfect Tense. 

1 Present, ent, belonging to what; «, is ; pre = prae, before [us], now. 

2 Past, t, ; pa%=pat^ receive, endure, suffer. 



INDEFINITE TENSES. 305 

Future Tenses, 

Lit. Dep. The word, fiiture^^ means (he state or condition of that 
which is about to be. 

336. A Future Tense is one in which the time of the event 
or action narrated will occur after the time of the narration. 

237. The Future Tenses are the Indefinite Future 
or the First Future, and the Definite, Second, or Perfect 
Future Tense. 

Indefinite Tenses. 

Present Tense, 

338. The Present Tense is attributed to a verh when the 
time of the event or action narrated is the same as the time of the 
narration. 

Examples. 

1. J5 he to he our guide? He is to be our guide. [Him 
to be our guide, is.] 

Grammatical Analysis. Is is an irregular, intransitive, simple Yerb 
from the verb, to be ; its principal parts are ; to be, he was, being, 

been. Its attributes are ; active , third , singular 

indicative , present Tense ; Simple Interrogative. It is indefinite ; 

because, it is not limited by a tense of the auxiliary verb, to have. It 
has the logical attribute, present Tense, because the time of the action 
or state of existence narrated is the same as the time of the narration. 

Be is a Yerb ; from the Yerb, to be ; its prin. parts are ; to be, 

he was, being, been. It has the attributes, active — — , no person, 
no number, infinite mode, present Tense. It is indefinite ; because, etc. 
It has the logical attribute, present Tense, because, etc. 

2. The boat, heing ready, may now he loaded. 



is a Yerb ; from the Yerb, ; its prin. 

parts are; . It has the attributes, active, without person and 

number, participial mode, present Tense. 

3. Best in peace. Po rest yourselves here. Be seated in 
this chair. Let me assist you, if I can do so. 

339. The Present Tense is used in all the Modes, as 
follows ; — 

1 FuTFEE. 6, belonging to ; fur^ that will ; fu, be, have been. 



806 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

24®. The Present Tense of the Infinitive Mode has 
the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple 
Form is the verb-root or first principal part of the Yerb. 
Its Periphrastic Forms are made by using the third 
principal part in the Active, and the fourth principal 
part in the Passive, as the principal Verb, with the In- 
finitive Present of the Yerb, to &e, as an auxiliary ; or, 
according to General Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Periphrastic Forms. 

Active Voice. Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

to be. (wanting). (wanting), 

to love. to be loving. to be loved, 

to do. to be doing. to be done. 

4. To 5e sincere is to feel in earnest. 

Parsing. Be is Yerb; from ; its prin. parts are; . It 

has the attributes, active, no person, no number, infinitive, present 
Tense; Simple Form. It has the logical attribute, present Tense, 
because, etc. 

Present Tense, Infinitive Mode, of the Yerb, to he ; Active Voice, 
Simple Form: to be (Here!); Passive Voice, (wanting). (See Conju- 
gation of the Yerb.) 

Feel is, etc. It has the logical attribute, present Tense ; because, 
etc. Present Tense, Infinitive Mode, of the Yerb, to feel; Active 
Voice, Simple Form ; to feel (Here !) ; Periphrastic Form^ to be feel- 
ing ; etc. 

5. He ought to do the work. He ought to be doing the 
work. The work ought to be done by him. 

341. The Present Tense of the Participial Mode has 
the Simple Form only. It is the third principal part 
of the Yerb, and is made by snfl&xing ing to the verb- 
root 

Simple Forms. Active Voice. 

Being. Loving. Doing. 

6. The ship, leing ready, went to sea. Wind, llowing a 
hurricane, is only air in motion. 

Parsing. Being is . It has the logical attribute, present Tense. 

It is indefinite ; because, etc. ; it is present^ because, etc. Present 



PRESENT TENSE. 307 

Tense, Participial Mode of the Verb, to he ; Active Yoice, Simple Form, 
BEING (Here !) ; Passive, (wanting). (See Conjugation of the Verb.) 

242. The Present Tense of the Indicative Mode has 
the Simple, the Emphatic, and the Periphrastic Forms. 
Its Simple form is the verb-root, with the person and 
number suffixes. Its Emphatic Form is made by using 
the verb-root as the principal Verb, with the Indicative 
Present of the Verb, to do, as an auxiliary ; or, accord- 
ing to General Eule I. Its Periphrastics are made by 
using the third prin. part in the Active, and the fourth 
prin. part in the Passive, as the principal Verb, with the 
Indicative Present of the Verb, to be^ as its auxiliary ; 
or, according to General Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be, 

Interrogative. Am I ? Art thou ? Is he ? Are we ? etc. 

Hesponsive. I am. Thou art He is. We are. etc. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Do. 
Inter. Do I ? Doest, or doth thou f Does, or doth he ? Do we ? etc, 
Besp. I do. Thou doest, or doth. He does, or doth. We do. etc. 

Emphatic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Do. 

Inter. Do I do ? Dost thou do ? Does, or doth he do ? Do we do ? etc. 
Eesp, I do do. Thou dost do. He does or doth do. We do do. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Do. 

Inter. Am I doing ? Art thou doing ? Is he doing ? Are we doing ? etc. 
Besp. 1 am doing. Thou art doing. He is doing. We are doing, etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to Do. 

Inter. Am I done ? Art thou done ? Is he done ? Are we done ? etc. 
Besp. I am done. Thou art done. He is done. We are done, etc. 

7. He is eating his food. Does he eat his food ? Is his 
food eaten by him ? Eats he his food ? 

•Parsing. Is eating is an irreg., trans., comp. Verb ; from ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It is active, third, singular, indicative, present 



308 THE GRAMMAR OF LAXGUAGE. 

Tense, periphrastic form, responsive. It is indefinite ,- because, etc. ; 
it is present, because, etc. 

Here let the student give the Active and Passive Periphrastic Forms of 
the Verb, to Eat. 

The Present Tense of the Irnj^eraiive Mode. 

243. The Present Tense of the Imperodive Mode has 
the Shiiple, the Emphatic, and the Periphrastic Forms ; 
and, also, a Comi^ound Form. Its Simple Form is the 
verb-root. Its Emphatic Forms are made by using the 
verb-root as the principal Yerb, with the Yerb, to clo^ 
as an auxiliary ; or, according to General Eule I. Its 
Periphrastic Forms are made by using the third prin. 
part in the Active, and the fourth prin. part in the 
Passive, as the principal Yerb, with the Imperative 
Present of the Yerb, to &e, as its auxiliary ; or, accord- 
ing to Eule II. Its Compound Form is made by using 
the Yerb, to cZo, as an auxiliary with the Periphrastic 
Forms. 

Simple and Emphatic Forms, of the Verb, to Be. 

Be here. Be thou here. Be ye here. 

Do be here. Do thou be here. Do ye be here. 

Sim.ple Forms. Emphatic Forms. 

Be ; be thou ; be ye. Do be ; do thou be ; do ye be. 

Do ; do thou ; do ye. Do do ; do thou do ; do ye do. 

Note I. In order to enable the student to give the Tense of any 
Mode readily, the foUowing contractions may be used ; — 

pr^ = Verb-Root or First Principal Part. 

pr^ r= Second Principal Part ; — ed, Reg. ; or, , Irreg. 

pp3 _ Third " " ending in ing. 

pr^ = Fourth " " ; — ed, Reg. ; or, , Irreg. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to -. 

Be pr^. Be thou pr^. Be ye pr^. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

Be pr*. Be thou pr^. Be ye pr*. 



PRESENT TENSE OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 309 

Compound Forms. Active Voice. 
Do be loving. Do thou be loving. Do ye be loving. 

Compound Form.s. Passive Voice, 
Do be loved. Do thou be loved. Do ye be loved. 

8. Wake^ my soul I Stretch out thy wings ; thy better 
portion trace. 

Parsing. Wake is a Verb ; from the Yerb, ; its prin. 

are ; . Its attributes are voice, person, number. 

mode, present Tense, simple form. It is indefinite, because, etc. 

It is present^ because, etc. 

Present Tense, Imperative Mode of the Verb, to make; Active 
Voice, Simple Form, wake (Here!); Emphatic Form, do wake; Peri- 
phrastic Form, DO BE WAKING; Passive Voice, Periplirastic Form^ be 
WAKED ; Compound Periphrastic, DO be waking, do be waked. 

9. Boys, do not be making such a noise. Come here, do 
come here, girls ! 

The Preserd Tense of the Potential Mode. 

344. The Present Tense of the Potential Mode has 
the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple 
Form is made by using the verb-root as the principal 
Verb, with the Verbs, may^ can^ must^ as auxiliaries. 
Its Periphrastic Form is made by using the third prin. 
part in the Active, and the fourth prin. part in the 
Passive, as the principal verb, with the Potential Present 
of the Verb, to he^ as its auxiliary ; or, according to 
General Eule IL 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to BE. 

( May, can, or must I [to] be ? 
Inter. < Mayest or mayst, canst, or must thou [to] be ? 
( May, can, or must he [to] be ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must [to] be. 
liesp. ■< Thou mayest or mayst, canst, or must [to] be. 
( He may, can, or must [to] be. etc 



810 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verd to {any Verh), 

( May, can, or must I [to] dress ? 
Inter. < Mayest or mayst, canst, or must thou [to] dress ? 

( May, can or must he [to] dress? etc. 

c I may, can, or must [to] dress. 
Eesp. < Thou mayest or mayst, canst, or must [to] dress. 

( He may, can, or must [to] dress, etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — — . 

( May, can, or must I [to] be dressing ? 
Inter. < Mayest, canst, or must thou be dressing ? 
( May, can, or must he be dressing ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must [to] be dressing. 
Besp. < Thou mayest, canst, or must be dressing. 
( He may, can or must be dressing, etc. 

Periphrastic Form.s. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

( May, can, or must I be dressed ? 
Inter. 4 Mayest, canst, or must thou be dressed ? 
( May, can, or must he be dressed ? etc. 

' I may, can, or must be dressed. 

' Thou mayest, canst, or must be dressed. 

, He may, can, or must be dressed, etc. 

10. May we he studying our lessons? The roses can be 
gathered in the morning. Must I go to town? Canst thou 
sing ? They cannot sing. 

Parsing. May he studying is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. 

parts are ; . It has the attributes, voice, person, 

number, — — mode, present Tense, periphrastic form, interrogative. It 
is indefinite ; because, etc. It is present, because, etc. 

Rere give the Present Tense of the Potential Mode, in both Forms, of 
the Verb, to Study. 

11. Can we be here long? Must the horse be driven 
slowly ? May the bell be rung early ? 

Tlie Present Tense of the Suhjunctive Mode, 

245. The Present Tense of tlie Subjunctive Mode 
has three kinds of Simple, Emphatic, and Periphrastic 
Forms, first, those belonging to the Ancient or Pure 



ANCIENT OR PURE SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 311 

Subjunctive Mode ; second^ those belonging to the Sub- 
junctive derived from the Indicative Mode; third^ those 
belonging to the Subjunctive derived from the Potential 
Mode. 

Note II. It was proposed to form a pure or distinct Subjunctive 
Mode of the English Verb, by dropping the suffixes showing the per- 
son and number of the subject noun ; but, th§ proposition was not then 
generally accepted. It succeeded, however, sufficiently to justify the 
use of these Forms, at least, in the Present and in the Imperfect Tenses, 
by those who prefer them. They are commonly known as the Ancient 
or Pure Subjunctive Forms. 

These Forms are now in general use. They add distinctness to the 
language and, also, contribute to its euphony. Hence, the student 
should become familiar with their use. 

TJie Present Tense of the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Mode, 

346. The Present Tense of the Ancient or Pure 
Subjunctive Mode has the Simple, the Emphatic, and 
the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple Form is made by 
using the verb-root as the principal Verb, with the Yerb 
to c?o, as its auxiliary. Its Periphrastic Form is made 
by using the third prin. part in the Active, and the 
fourth prin. part in the Passive, as the Principal Yerb, 
with the Yerb, to 6e, as its auxiliary. 

Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Forms. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

If I be. If thou be. If he, she, or it be. If we be. etc. 

Note III. If, as here used, denotes any subordinate connector. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I hate. If thou hate. If he, she, or it hate. If we hate. etc. 
Lest I pr^ Lest thou pr^ Lest he, she, or it pr^ Lest we pr\ etc. 

Emphatic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to 

If I do sing. If thou do sing. If he, she, or it do sing. If we do sing. 



812 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Periphrastic Forms, Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I be washing. If thou be washing. If he be washing, etc. 

Lest I be pr^. Lest thou be pr-. Lest he be pr^. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to , 

If I be washed. If thou be pr^. If he be pr^. If she be pr^. etc. 

12. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he 
he weary of thee. Unless it rain soon, the plants will be 
dried up. If he sleep, he shall do well. 

Parsing. Be is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, voice, person, number, mode, 

preserd Tense, simple form of the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive. 

Give the Present Tense of the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive of the Verb, 
to Be, r/i full ; also, of the Verbs, to Rain, to Sleep. 

13. If the sun be shining, it will be hot. Unless this book 
be carefully studied, it should not be studied at all. If he 
do not come, he will not keep his promise. 

Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Indicative Mode. 

347. The Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Indic- 
ative Mode, are the same as the Eesponsive Forms of 
the Indicative Present. They are known to be in the 
Subjunctive, by observing that the clauses in which 
they are used are joined to other clauses by subordinate 
connectors. 

Note IY. The Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Indicative, are 
so easily confounded with the Indicative itself, that they are rapidly 
falling into disuse. It is sufficient condemnation, that many of them 
are cacophonous. No Forms of them, except examples, need be given. 

14. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he 
becomes weary of thee. Unless it rains soon, the plants will 
be dried up. If he sleeps, he shall do well. 

Parsing. Becomes is a Yerb ; from ; its principal parts 

are ; . It has the attributes, voice, person, number, 

mode, present Tense, simple form of a Subjunctive, derived from 

an Indicative Mode. 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 813 

15. If I am [be] not here when you return, Avait for me. 
Send him to me, unless he is [be] studying. You cannot go 
unless you are fully prepared. You must wait until the work 
is done. 

Subjunctive Forms derived from the Potential Mode. 

S48. The Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Po- 
tential Mode, are the same as the Eesponsive Forms of 
the Potential Present. They are known to be in the 
Subjunctive, by observing that they are used in clauses 
joined by subordinate connectors. 

16. If it can he^ it must be. If it can he learned, it must 
be learned. If I may be going, I will be going. If I must 
work, I will work. 

Parsing. May he going is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts 

are ; . It has the attributes, voice, person, num- 
ber, mode, present Tense, periphrastic form of a Subjunctive de- 
rived from the Potential Mode. 

Note Y. In consequence of basing the classification of Tenses upon 
the completeness of the action narrated, a common error is prevalent, 
and has been much discussed by writers. It is this ; that such con- 
structions as, " The house is built," are past instead of present Tenses. 
The real Present Tense of such expressions as, "The house is built," 
is deformed by using the word, being, as if it were an auxiliary Yerb ; 
as, '* The house is being built," which is, logically, an absurdity. These 
expressions have the real Present Tense ; as, the expression, " The 
teacher is loved by the pupil," has the Present Tense. 

These expressions are easily perceived to be in the Present Tense, 
when second objects are expressed with them ; as, ^^as^f Tense, "This 
house was built by the day;" present Tense, " This house is built b}^ the 
day :''^ future Tense, "This house will be built by the day." "The 
letter was written by me." " The letter is written by me." " The 
letter will be written by me." All that is needed in order that these 
expressions should be properly understood is, that they be used in the 
Porms, dictated by the rules given for constructing the different Tense 
Forms of the English Yerb ; or, that the English G-rammar should 
teach the correct use of the English language by correcting common 
errors, rather than by endorsing them because they have become com- 
mon. 

14 



314 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Note YI. The student should now be required to give a certain 
Person and Number of a given Verb in the Present Tense, through the 
Finite Modes. This exercise is called a Synopsis^ or separate view of 
that Person and Number. Thus ; — 

Synopsis of the First Person, Singular Member, Present Tense, of 
the Verb, to Eat. 

Indicative, Active, Simple, . Eat I ? I eat. Emphatic ; . 

Do I eat ? I do eat. Periphrastic, . Am I eating ? I am eating. 

Passive, . Is it eaten by me ? It is eaten by me. 

Potential, Active, Simple, . May, can, or must I eat ? I may, 

can, or must eat. Periphrastic, . May, can, or must I be eating ? 

I may, can, or must be eating. Passive, . May, can, or must it 

be eaten by me ? It may, can, or must be eaten by me. 

Pure Subjunctive, Simple. If I eat. Emphatic. If I do eat. 
Periphrastic. If I be eating. Passive. If it be eaten by me. 

Subjunctive from the Indicative, Simple. If I eat ; etc. (Like the 
Indicative Responsive.) 

Subjunctive from the Potential, Simple. If I may, can, or must eat ; 
etc. (Like the Potential Responsive.) 

The Indefinite Past or the Imperfect Tense. 

34:9. The Indefinite Past, the Imperfect, or the Past 
Tense is attributed to a Yerh, when the time of the action or event 
occurred before the time of the narration. 

Note I. The Indefinite Past Tense is sometimes called the Historic 
Tense of the English language ; because, it is generally used in the 
history of past events. 

Note II. In the Latin language, the First Definite Past or the Per- 
fect Tense is the Historic Tense. Thus, Caesar's letter, "Yeni, vidi, 
vici," when exactly translated reads thus, "I have come, I have seen, 
I have conquered." 

230. The Indefinite Past Tense is used in three 
Modes ; namely, the Indicative, the Potential, and the 
Subjunctive ; as follows, — 

351. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Shuple, the Emphatic, and the Periphras- 
tic Forms. Its Simple Form is the second principal 

1 Synopsis, is == ic, ; ops, eye, seen ; syn = con^ together. That is, a par- 
ticular part separated from the others and presented at one view. 



IMPERFECT TENSE OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 315 

part of the Verb, with the suffixes showing person and 
number. Its Emphatic Forms are made by using the 
verb-root as the principal Verb, witli the Verbs, did^ 
didst^ as auxiliaries. Its Periphrastic Forms are made 
according to General Eule 11. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the' Verh, to Be. 

Inter. Was I ? Wast, or wert thou ? Was he, she, or it ? Were we ? 
Eesp. I was. Thou wast, or wert. He, she, or it was. We were. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verd^ to . 

Inter. Did I ? Didst thou ? Did he, she, or it ? Did we ? etc. 
Hesp. 1 did. Thou didst. He, she, or it did. We did. etc. 

Emphatic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

Inter. Did I run ? Didst thou run ? Did he, she, or it run ? etc. 

Besp. 1 did pr^ Thou didst pr\ He, she, or it did pr\ etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

Inter. Was I holding it ? Wast, or wert thou pr^ it ? Was he pr^ it ? etc. 
Mesp. 1 was pr^ it. Thou wast, or wert pr^ it. He was pr^ it. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

Inter. Was it held hj me ? Was it pr^ by thee ? Was it pr^ by him ? etc. 
Resp. It was pr"* by me. It was pr^ by thee. It was pr^ by him. etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The dog was here. Were the pupils going to school ? 
He was riding on a horse. The boy obeyed him. I wrote a 
letter. I was writing a letter. The letter was written by me. 

Parsing. Was is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, voice, person, number, mode, 

indefinite past or the imperfect Tense, simple form, historic. 

It is indefinite ; because, it is not limited by a tense of the auxiliary 
Yerb, to have. It is past, because it shows that the time of the action 
or state of existence, expressed by it, occurred before the time of the 
narration. 

Wrote has the indefinite past or the imperfect Tense. 

2. I came, I saw, I conquered. Did I come " Was he 
conquered ? The boy was seen when he was leaving school. 



316 THE GEAKMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

25S. The Indefinite Past Tense of tlie Potential Mode 
has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Sim- 
ple Forms are made by nsing the verb-root as the prin- 
cipal Verb, with the Verbs, mighty could^ would^ should. 
as auxiliaries. Its Periphrastics are made according to 
General Eule 11. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

( Might, could, would, or should I be ? 
Inter. < Mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest thou be ? 
( Might, could, would, or should he be ? 

I might, could, would, or should be. 

Thou mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest be. 

He might, could, would, or should be. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

{ Might, could, would, or should I be reading? 
Inter. < Mightest, couldest. wouldest, or shouldest thou be reading 

\ Might, could, would, or should he be reading ? 

( I might, could, would, or should be reading. 
Besp. ^ Thou mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest be reading. 

( He might, could, would, or should be reading. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verh^ to . 

( Might, could, would, or should I be heard ? 
Inter. •] Mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest thou be heard ? 

( Might, could, would, or should he be heard ? 

r I might, could, would, or should be heard. 
Besp. < Thou mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest be heard. 

( He might, could, would, or should be heard. 

3. Might I listen to your story ? Thou couldst not do it. 
I could a tale unfold. 



is a ■ Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts 

are ; . Its attributes are, voice, person, number, 

mode, indefinite past, or the imperfect Tense, simple form, inter- 
rogative. It is indefinite ; because, etc. It is past, because, etc. 

The Indefinite Past Tense of the Yerb, to Listen, is . 

Rere let the student give the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms, Po- 
tential Past of the Verb, to Listen. (See Conjugation.) 



ANCIENT OR PURE SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 317 

353. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Subjunctive Mode 
has three kinds of Simple, Emphatic, and Periphrastic Forms j 
fi^rst^ those belonging to the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive; 
second^ those belonging to the Subjunctive derived from the 
Indicative Mode; third^ those belonging to the Subjunctive 
derived from the Potential Mode, 

334. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Ancient or 
Pure Subjunctive Mode has the Simple, the Emphatic, 
and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple Forms are 
made by using the second prin. part, as the principal 
Verb. Its Emphatic Forms are made by using the 
verb-root as the principal verbs, with the Verb, did^ as 
its auxiliary. Its Periphrastics are made by rising the 
third priiL part in the Active, and the fourth prin. part 
in the Passive, as the principal Verb, with the Verb, 
were^ as an auxiliary. 

Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Forms, 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verhj to Be. 

If I were. If thou wert. If he, she, or it were. If we were, etc. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Vert), to . 

If I hated. If thou hated. If he, she, or it hated. If we pr'^. etc. 
If I wrote. If thou pr'^. If he, she, or it pr^. If we pr^. etc. 

Emphatic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I did write. If thou did write. If he, she, or it did — . If we — . etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I were going. If thou were pr^. If he, she, or it were — . If we — . etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I were fed. If thou were pr^ If he, she, or it were — . If we — . etc. 

If thou were hated, thou wouldst be wretched. If she ivere 

doing this why did she leave it ? 

Parsing. Were hated is a Verb ; from ; its prin. parts 

are ; — — . Its attributes are, voice, person, number, 



318 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

mode, indefinite, 2^cLst, or the imperfect Tense, in the Ancient or 

Pure Subjunctive Mode. 

4. If I were good natured^ his presence would be much 
more tolerable. If thou did hate him, tby conduct was 
strange. 

Subjunctive Forms derived frora the Indicative Mode. 

3oo. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Subjunctive 
Forms, derived from the Indicative Mode, is the same 
as the Eesponsive Forms of the Indicative Indefinite 
Past. They are known to be in the Subjunctive by 
observing that the clauses, in which they are used, are 
joined to other clauses by subordinate connectors. 

5. If he was near, I would tell him. Thou wouldst think 
less of it, if thou didst knoiu more of it. 

Didst knoic has the indefinite past or the imperfect Tense, of a Sub- 
junctive derived from an Indicative mode. 

Suhjunctive Forms deprived from the Potential Mode. 

356. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Suhjunctive 
Form, derived from the Potential Mode, is the same as 
the Eesponsive Forms of the Potential Indefinite Past. 
They are known to be in the Subjunctive by observing 
that they are used in clauses joined by subordinate 
connectors. 

6. I would go, if I coidd be ready. They could come, if 
they would. If they were helped, they could do well enough. 

N. B. — Here let the student give Synopsis of the Indefinite 
Past Tense. 

The Indefinite Future or the First Future Tense. 

237. Tlie Indefinite Future, the First Future, or the 
Future Tense is attributed to a verb^ when the time of the action 
narrated will occur after the time of the narration. 



^DEFINITE FUTURE OF THE INDICATIVE. 319 

258. The Indefinite Future or the First Future 
Tense is used in two Modes ; namely, the Indicative, 
and the Subjunctive, derived from the Indicative ; as 
follows ; — 

259. The Indefinite Future Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the verb-root as the 
principal Verb, with shall or will as auxiliaries. Its 
Periphrastics are made according to General Rule 11. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

( Shall, or will I be ? 
Inter. < Shalt, or wilt thou be ? 

( Shall, or will, he, she, or it be? etc. 

( 1 shall, or will be. 
Eesp. < Thou shalt, or wilt be. 

( He, she, or it shall or will be. etc. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

[ Shall, or will I sing ? 
Inter. ■< Shalt, or wilt thou pr^ ? 

( Shall, or will he, she, or it pr^ ? etc. 

( I shall or will pr^ 
Resjp. < Thou shalt, or wilt, pr\ 

( He, she, or it shall, or will pr^ etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

( Shall, or will I be eating ? 
Inter. < Shalt, or wilt thou be pr^ ? 

( Shall, or will he, she, or it be pr^ ? etc. 

( I shall, or will be ing. 

Eesp. < Thou shalt, or will be pr^. 

( He, she, or it shall, or will be pr^. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to , 

( Shall, or will I be known ? 
Inter. < Shalt, or wilt thou be pr-* ? 

( Shall, or will he, she, or it be pr^ ? etc. 

( I shall, or will be known. 
Eesp. < Thou shalt or will bo pr**. 

( He, she, or it shall, or will be pr*. etc. 



820 THE GRAMMAE OF LANGUAGE. 

Examples. 

1. I will le here when you come. I shall go to the city to- 
morrow. 

360. The Indefinite Future Tense of tlie Subjunctive^ 
derived from the Indicative Mode, is the same as the 
Eesponsive Forms of the Indicative First Future. They 
are known to be in the Subjunctive by observing that 
the clauses, in which, they are u.sed, are joined to other 
clauses by subordinate connectors. 

2. If my sheep shall hear my voice, they will follow me. 
I shall be pleased if you will he here to-morrow. 

N. B. — Now let the student give Synopses of the Indefinite 
Future Tense. 

The Definite Tenses. 

The First Definite Past or the Perfect Tense. 

S61. The First Definite Past or the Perfect Tense is 
attributed to a verh^ when the past tense of its princip>al verh is 
limited hy a present tense of the auxiliary verh^ to PI aye. 

962. The First Definite Past Tense is u.sed in five 
Modes ; namely, the Infinitive, the Participial, the In- 
dicative, the Potential, and the Subjunctive. 

963. The First Definite Past of the Infinitive Mode 
has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Sim- 
ple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as the 
principal Yerb, witb the Verb, to have^ as an aiixiliary. 
Its Periphrastic Form is made according to General 
Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verbj to Be, to Loye, to Do. 
• to have been. to have loved. to have done. 

Periphrastic Form.s. Active Voice of the Verb, to -. 

to have been loving. to have been doing. 



FIRST DEFINITE PAST OF THE INDICATIVE. 321 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb^ to . 

■ tx) have been loved. to have been done. 

Examples. — — 

1. I ought to have been there. He ought to have sold the 
farm. They ought to have studied their lessons. The lessons 
ought to have been studied by them. 

Parsing. Have been studied is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. 

parts are ; . It has the attributes, voice, — - person, 

number, mode, the first definite past or the perfect Tense. It is 

definite ; because, the Past Tense of the principal verb, studied, is 
hmited by the Present Tense of the auxihary, have. It is past, 
because, etc. 

364. The First Definite Past Tense of the Participial 
Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
a principal Verb, with having as its au.xiliary. Its 
Periphrastic Form is made according to General Rule II. 

Note I. The First Definite Past Tense of the Participial Mode is 
sometimes called the Compound Perfect Participle. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verbs, to Be, to Hate, to Do. 
having been. having hated. having done. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

having been loving. having been hating. having been — . 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

having been loved. having been hated. having been — . 

2. The boy, having returned from sea, came home. The 
book, having been brought home, was read by the children. 

265. The Pirst Definite Past Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Verb, with have^ hast^ has^ hath^ as auxil- 
iaries. Its periphrastic Form is made according to 
General Eule IL 

14* 



322 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Yerl), to Be. 
Inter.- Have I been ? Hast thou been ? Has, or hath he. she, it been ? 
Resp. I have been. Thou hast been. He, she, or it has or hath been. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 
Inter. Have I been reading ? Hast thou been pr^ ? Has or hath he, etc. 
Resp. I have been reading. Thou hast been pr^. He, she, or it, etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verd^ to — . 
Inter. Have I been fed ? Hast thou been pr'^ 2 Has or hath he, etc. 
Resj). I have been fed. Thou hast been pr'^. He, she, or it, etc. 

3. I have hee?i here some time. Thou hast been reading 
the hook. The hook has been read bj thee. 

XoTE n. The grammarians define this Tense as follows; "The Per- 
fect Tense denotes that the action is finished, and, also, conveys an 
allusion to the present time." 

S6S. The First Definite Past Tense of the Potential 
Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Yerb, with may kave^ can have^ must have^ 
as auxiliaries. Its Peripbrastic Forms are made ac- 
cording to General Rule II. 

Simple Forms, Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

[ Mav, can. or must I have been ? 
Inter. < Mayst, canst, or must thou have been ? 

( Mayst, canst, or must he, she, or it have been ? etc, 

( I may, can, or must have been. 
Resp. < Thou mayst, canst, or must have been. 

( He, she, or it mayst, canst, or must have been. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 

( May, can, or must I have been driving ? 
Inter. < Mayst, canst, or must thou have been pr^? 

( Mayst. canst, or must he. she, or it have been jji^ ? etc. 

f I may, can, or must have been driving ; or, — . 
Resp. < Thou mayst, canst, or must have been pr^ 

( He, she, or it mayst, canst, or must — pr^ etc. 



FIEST DEFINITE PAST OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 323 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to — . 

{ May, can, or must I have been driven ? 
Inter. .< Mayst, canst, or must thou have been driven ? 

( Mayst, canst, or must he, she or it have been — ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must have been driven ; or — . 
Eesp. K Thou mayst, canst, or must have been driven. 

( He, she, or it may, can, or must have been driven, etc. 

4. I may have been there. He must have sold his farm. 

267. The First Definite Past Tense of the Suhjunctive 
Mode, derived from the Indicative and Potential Modes, 
is the same as the Eesponsive Forms of the Indicative 
and of the Potential of the First Definite Past Tense. 
They are known by being used in clauses joined by 
subordinate connectors. 

5. If he has bought this house, he has done well. They 
wiU not venture to come, unless they have already started. 

N. B. — Noio let the student give Synopses of the First Def- 
inite Future or the Perfect Tense. 

The Second Definite Past or the Pluperfect Tense. 

368. The Second Definite Past or the Pluperfect 
Tense is attributed to a verh^ when the past tense of its principal 
verb is limited hy a past tense of the auxiliary verh^ to Have. 

369. The Second Definite Past Tense is used in 
three Modes ; namely, the Indicative, the Potential, and 
the Subj unctive ; as follows ; — 

370. The Second Definite Past Tense of the Indic- 
ative Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. 
Its Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. 
part as the principal Verb, with had^ hadst, as auxiliaries. 
Its Periphrastic Form is made according to General 
Eule II. 



324 THE gram:maii of language. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 
Inter. Had I been ? Hadst thou been ? Had he. she, or ii; been ? etc. 
Resp. I had been. Thou hadst been. He. she, or it had been. etc. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verlo^ to — . 
Inter. Had I loved ? Hadst thou loved ? Had he, she, or it loved ? etc. 
Resp. I had loved. Thou hadst loved. He, she, or it had loved, etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 

Inter. Had I been loving ? Hadst thou been pr^ ? Had he, she, or it — ? 
Resp>. I had been loving. Thou hadst been pr^. He, she, or it had — . 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to — . 

Inter. Had I been loved ? Hadst thou been pr-^ ? Had he, she, or it — ? 
Resp. I had been loved. Thou hadst been pr"^. He, she, or it had — . 

Examples. 

1. They had been there some time before you went. 

Had been has the second definite past or the pluperfect Tense. It is 
definite; because it is limited by a Tense of the auxiliary Yerb, to liave. 
It is past, because, etc. 

S71. The Second Definite Past Tense of the Potential 
Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Verb, with might have, could have^ ivould 
liave^ should have^ as auxiliaries. Its Periphrastic Form 
is made according to Greneral Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 
i flight, could, would, or should I have been ? 
Inter. \ Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou have been ? 
( Might, could, would, or should he, she, or it — ? etc. 
/ I might, could, would, or should have been. 
•5 Thou mightst. couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been. 
( He, she, or it might, could, would, or should have been. etc. 

Periplirastic Forms. Active Voice of the Ve7'b, to — . 
f Might, could, would, or should I have been reading ? 
Inter. •< Mightst, couldst, wouldst. or shouldst thou have been reading ? 
( Might, could, would, or should he have been reading ? etc 



THE FUTURE TENSE. ^25 

( I might, could, would, or should have been reading. 
Besp I Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been reading* 
( He might, could, would, or should have been reading. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verh, to — . 

7- . ( Mio-ht, could, would, or should I have been known ? 
Jruer. ■{ 

( Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or thou have been known ? etc. 

D j I might, could, would or should have been — ed; or, — . 

( Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or have been known, etc. 

372. The Second Definite Past of the Subjunctive 
Mode is the same as the Eesponsive Forms of the 
Second Definite Past Tense of the Indicative Mode, 
and also of the Potential. They are known by being 
used in a clause joined to another clause by a sub- 
ordinate connector. 

2. If he had not proceeded so far, we should have overtaken 
him. 

N. B. — Now let the student give Synopses of the Second 
Definite Past or the Pluperfect Tense, 

The Definite Futuee, or the Second Future, or- the 
Future Tense. 

373. The Definite Future, or the Second Future, or 
the Future Tense is aUrihuted to a verh^ lohen the time of tlie 
principal verh tvill occur after the time of the narration, and is 
limited by a future tense of the auxiliary verh^ to Have. 

ISToTE I. This Tense is often called the ^^ Future Perfects 

274. The Definite Future Tense is used in tico 
Modes; namely, the Indicative, and the Subjunctive, 
derived from the Indicative ; as follows, — 

275. The Definite Future Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Yerb, with shall have^ will have^ as auxili- 



826 THE GRAMMAR OF LAKGUAGE. 

aries. Its Periphrastic Form is made according to 
General Eule 11. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be, 

( Shall, or will I have been ? 
Inter. ■< Shalt, or wilt thou have been ? 

( Shall, or will he have been ? etc. 

( I shall, or will have been. 
JResp. < Thou shalt, or wilt have been. 

( He shall, or wilt have been. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

{ Shall, or will I have been ing ? 

Inter. < Shalt, or wilt thou have been ing ? 

( Shall, or will he have been ing ? etc. 

I I shall, or will have been pr^. 
Besp. < Thou shalt, or wilt have been pr^. 

( He shall, or will have been pr^. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

J. , j Shall, or will I have been hated ? 

( Shalt, or wilt thou have been pr"* ? etc. 
'. shall, or will have been pr^. 
Thou shalt, or wilt have been pr^*. etc. 

Examples. 

1. He will have heen there five days already. After they 
shall have been conquered, peace will be restored. 

SyS. The Definite Future Tense of the Subjunctive^ 
derived from the Indicative, is the same as the Eespon- 
sive Forms of the Definite Future Tense of the Indica- 
tive Mode ; from which it is distinguished by being 
used in a clause joined to another clause by a subordi- 
nate connector. 

2. Unless the students shall have studied diligently, they 
will not be able to recite their lessons. 

N. B. — Now let the student give Synopses of the Definiite 
Future or the Second Future Tense, 






CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 327 

Means of knowing ilie Tenses of Verhs. 
S77. The Tenses of Verbs may be known in six 
ways ;— 

First The Present Tense is shown by using either 
the verb-root alone ; or, by using the third prin. part 
alone ; by one of the auxiliaries, rfo, doest^ dost^ does, 
doeih^ doth^ may^ can^ must^ am^ is, art^ are, (See 
Present Tense.) 

Second. The Indefinite Past Tense is shown by using 
the second prin. part alone ; and, also, by using one of 
the* auxiliaries, did^ didst ^ mighty could^ would^ should^ 
was^ wast^ wert^ were. 

Third. The Indefinite Future is shown by using the 
auxiliaries, shall^ wilt. 

Fourth. The First Definite Past Tense is shown by 
using the auxiliaries, have^ hast, hath^ may have, can 
have^ must have. 

Fifth. The Second Definite Past Tense is shown by 
using the auxiliaries, had^ hadst^ might have^ could have, 
zoould have^ should have. 

Sixth. The Definite Future Tense is shown by using 
the auxiliaries, shall have^ will have. 

Conjugation of the Verh. 

378. Fourth^ the Conjugation of the Verb. 

Lit. Def. The word, conjugation^ means the science and art of that 
which yokes together. 

379. The Conjugation of a Verh is an arrangement shoio- 
ing the classes to which a verh helongs^ and also^ its different 
attributes or properties. 

^ Conjugation, ation., ; jug =^junc ^junx^ yokes ; co?i, . 



328 THE GRAMMAE OF LANGUAGE. 

!N"OTE I. The results, produced by the conjugation of the Verb, are 
called the ParoAigm^ of the Yerb. 

280. A Yerb may be Conjugated in two ways ; 
first^ according to its tense or Tense-wise; and second^ 
according to its mode or Mode-wise, 

281. A Verh is conjugated according to its Tense or 
Tense-wise, when each tense is given through all its modes. 

Thus, the Yerb, to Write, is Conjugated tense-wise; first, by giving 
its Present Tense through the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Imperative, 
the Potential, and the Subjunctive Modes; second, by giving its Indefi- 
nite Past Tense, etc., through the Indicative, etc. 

382. A Verh is Conjugated according to its Mode or Mode- 
wiSEj whe7i each mode is given through all the tenses, in lohich 
that mode is used. 

Thus, the Yerb, to Write, is Conjugated mode-wise, v^hen ; first, its 
Infinitive is given through its Present, and Definite Past Tenses ; second, 
when its Participial is given through its Present, and its Definite Past 
Tenses; third., when its Indicative is given through its Present, Past, 
and Future Tenses, etc. 

Note IL In the following Paradigm, the Conjugation of the Irregu- 
lar Yerb, to Be, is given with the Conjugation of the Regular Yerb, to 
Love. To these should be added the Conjugation of an Irregular Yerb. 
Por this purpose, the Yerb, to Write, is well suited, on account of 
the difference between its second principal part, wrote, and its fourth 
principal part, written. Students, reviewing this Conjugation, will be 
profited by substituting an Irregular Yerb for the Yerb, to Love. 

Note III. In the following Conjugation, the word, direct is used in 
place of the term. Responsive. The term, Direct, being applied to a 
Responsive, and a Declarative or Historic sentence. At the option of 
the teacher, the term, Responsive, may be substituted for the term, 
Direct, when the Interrogative is given. 

1 Pabadigm. digm^ example, model, forms ; para., as, for. 



CONJUaATION OF THE VERB. . 329 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb, to Be, and the Regular Verb, 
to Love, according to their Modes or Mode-wise, 

paradigms. 
Infinitive Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 

to be. to love. to write. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

to (wanting). to be loving. to be writing. 

Passive Voice, Periplirastic Forms. 

— to (wanting). to be loved. to be written. 

FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, 

to have been. to bave loved. to have written. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— to (wanting). — to have been loving. — to have been writing. 

^ Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— to (wanting). — to have been loved. — to have been written. 

Pakticipial Mode ; or, the Participle. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— being. — loving. — writing. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. Seldom used. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— (wanting). — being loved. — being vn'itten. 

Definite Past or the Perfect Tense ; or, the Compound 

Perfect Participle. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 

— having been. — having; loved. — having written. 



330 THE GRAMMAR OF LA^^GUAGE. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— (wanting). — having been loving. — having been writing. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— (wanting). — having been — having been written ; or, 

loved ; or, — loved. — written. 

Note I. The Periphrastic Forms of the Passive Yoi'ce,' Definite Past 
Tense, Participial Mode, are frequently used without the auxiliaries, 
having^ been ; hence, these contracted Forms ( — loved, — written, etc.) 
always have the Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
1 am, Thou art, He is. We are, Te, or you are. They are. 

Am I ? Art thou ? Is he ? Are we ? Are ye, or you ? Are they? 

Active Voice. Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I love, Thou lovest, He loves. 

Plu. We love, Ye, or You love, They love. 

Sin. Love 1 1 Lovest thou 1 Loves he ? 

Plu. Love we ? Love ye, or you 1 Love they ? 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Direct and Interrogative.* 
Sin. I do love, Thoe dost love, He does love. 

Plu. We do love. Ye, or you do love. They do love. 

Sin. Do I love ? Dost thou love ? Does he love ? 

Plu. Do we love ? Do ye, or you love ? Do they love ? 
Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I am loving. Thou art loving. He is loving. 

Plu. Wq are loving, Ye, or you are loving. They are loving. 
Sin. Am I loving ? Art thou loving ? Is he loving ? 

Plu. Are we loving ? Are ye, or you loving ? Are they loving ? 
Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I am loved. Thou art loved. He is loved. 

Plu. We are loved, Ye, or you are loved, They are loved. 
Sin. Am I loved ? Art thou loved ? Is he loved ? 

Plu. Are we loved ? Are ye, or you loved ? Are they loved ? 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 331 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 

Sin. I was, Thou wast, He was, 

Plu. We were, Ye, or you were. They were. 

Sin. Was I ? Wast thou ? Was he ? 

Plu. Were we ? Were ye, or you ? Were they ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I loved. Thou lovedst. He loved. 

Plu. We loved, Ye, or you loved. They loved. 

Sin. Loved I ? Lovedst thou 1 Loved he ? 

Plu. Loved we ? Loved ye, or you ? Loved they ? 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I did love. Thou didst love, He did love. 

Plu. We did love, Ye, or you did love. They did love. 
Sin. Did I love ? Didst thou love ? Did he love ? 

Plu. Did we love ? Did ye, or you love ? Did they love? 

Active Voice, Periphraritic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I was loving. Thou wast loving, He was loving. 

Plu. We were loving. Ye, or you were loving. They were loving. 
Sin. Was I loving? Wa,st thou loving? Was he loving? 

Plu. Were we loving ? Were ye, or you loving ? Were they loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I was loved, Thou wast loved. He was loved. 

Plu. We were loved. Ye, or you were loved, They were loved. 
Sin. Was I loved ? Wast thou loved ? Was he loved ? 

Plu. Were we loved ? Were ye, or you loved? Were they loved? 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 

Sin. I have been, Thou hast been. He has been. 

Plu. We have been, Ye, or you have been, They have been 

Sin. Have I been ? Hast thou been ? Has he been ? 

Plu. Have we been ? Have ye, or you been ? Have thc}^ been? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I have loved, Thou liast loved. He has loved. 

Plu. We have loved, Ye, or you have loved. They have loved- 
Sin. Have I loved ? Hast thou loved ? Has he loved? 

Plu. Have wo loved ? Have ye, or you loved ? Have they loved ? 



332 THE GRAMMAR OF LANOUAGS. 

Active Voice, PeriphraBtic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
I have been loving, Thou hast been loving, He has been loving. 
We have been — Ye, or you have been — They have been loving. 
Have I been loving'? Hast thou been loving ? Has he been loving ? 
Have we been — Have ye, or you been — Have they been loving 1 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I have been loved, Thou hast been loved, He has been loved. 
We have been loved. Ye, or you have been — They have been loved. 
Have I been loved 1 Hast thou be.en loved ? Has he been loved ? 
Have we been — Have ye, or you been — Have they been loved 1 

THE SECOND DEFINITE PAST OR THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I had been, Thou hadst been. He had been. 

We had been, Ye, or you had been, They had been. 

Had I been ? Hadst thou been ? Had he been 1 

Had we been ? Had ye, or you been ? Had they been ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 

I had loved, Thou hadst loved. He had loved. 

We had loved. Ye, or you had loved, They had loved. 

Had I loved 1 Hadst thou loved ? Had he loved ? 

- Had we loved % Had ye, or you loved ? Had they loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I had been loving. Thou hadst been loving, He had been loving. 

We had been loving. Ye, or you had been — They had been loving. 
Had I been loving ? Hadst thou been loving? Had he been loving ? 
Had we been loving ] Had ye, or you been — Had they been loving % 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 

I had been loved, Thou hadst been loved, He had been loved. 

We had been loved, Ye, or you had been — They had been loved. 

Had I been loved ? Hadst thou been loved ? Had he been loved ? 

Had we been loved ? Had ye, or you been — Had they been loved ? 

THE INDEFINITE FUTURE OR FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will be. Thou shalt, or wilt be. He shall, or will be. 

We shall, or will be. Ye, or you shall — be. They shall, or will be. 

Shall, or will I be ? Shalt, or wilt thou be ? Shall, or will he be ? 

Shall, or will we be '^. Shall — ye, or you be ? Shall, or will they be ? 



INDICATIVE FIRST — SECOND FUTUEE. 333 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
I shall, or will love, Thou shalt love. He shall love. 

We shall, or will love, Ye, or you shall love, They shall love. 
Shall, or will I love ? Shalt thou love ? Shall he love ? 

Shall, or will we love 1 Shall ye, or you love 1 Shall they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
I shall be loving. Thou shalt be loving, He shall be loving. 

We shall be loving, Ye, or you shall be — They shall be loving. 
Shall I be loving 1 Shalt thou be loving ? Shall he be loving ? 

Shall we be loving ? Shall ye, or you be — Shall they be loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
I shall be loved. Thou shalt be loved, He shall be loved. 

We shall be loved. Ye, or you shall be — They shall be loved. 
Shall I be loved ? Shalt thou be loved ? Shall he be loved ? 

Shall we be loved ? Shall ye, or you be — Shall they be loved 1 

THE DEFINITE FUTURE OR THE SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct, and Interrogative. 

I shall have been, Thou shalt have been, He shall have been. 

We shall have been. Ye, or you shall have — They shall have been 

Shall I have been 1 Shalt thou have been ? Shall he have been ? 

Shall we have been ? Shall ye, or you have — Shall they have been ? 

Active Voice, Simple Form^, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall have loved, Thou shalt have loved, He shall have loved. 

We shall have loved, Ye, or you shall have — They shall have loved, 
Shall I have loved ? Shalt thou have loved 1 Shall he have loved ? 
Shall we have loved ? Shall ye, or you have — Shall they have loved 1 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall, or will have been loving. Shall, or will I have been loving? 
Thou shalt — have been loving, Shalt — thou have been loving ? 
He shall, or will have been loving. Shall, or will he have been loving? 
We shall, or will have been loving, Shall, or will we have been loving ? 
Ye, or you shall — have been — Shall — ye, or you have been — 
They shall — have been loving. Shall, or will they have been loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will I have been loved? 

Thou shalt — have been loved, Shalt, or wilt thou have been loved ? 

He shall, or will have been loved. Shall, or will he have been loved ? 

We shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will we have been loved ? 

Ye, or you shall — have been — Shall — ye, or you have been loved ? 

Tiioy shall, or will have been loved. Shall, or will they have been loved? 



334 the grammar of lakguage. 

Imperative Mode. 

PRESENT TEXSE. 

Simple Form. Be thou, or be you, Be ye, or be you. Contracted, Be- 
Emphatic. Do thou, or do you be, Do ye, or do you be. Con., Do be. 
Simple Form. Love thou, or you, Love ye, or you. 

Emphatic. Do thou, or you love. Do ye, or }ou love. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

First Form. Be thou, or you loving. Be ye, or you loving. ■•■ 

Second Form. Do thou, or you be loving. Do ye, or you be loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, First and Second. 
Be thou, or you loved, Be ye, or you loved. Contracted, Be loved. 
Do thou, or you be loved, Do ye, or you be loved. Con., Do be loved. 

PoTE^^TiAL Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 

I may, can, or must be, May, can, or must I be ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be, Mayst, canst, or must thou be ? 

He may, can, or must be. May, can, or must he be ? 

We may, can, or must be. May, can, or must v/e be ? 

Ye, or you may, can, or must be. May, can, or must ye, or you be ? 

They may, can, or must be. May, can, or must they be ? 

Active Voice, Simple Fcrm.s, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must love. May, can, or must I love ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must love, Mayst, canst, or must thou love ? 

He may, can, or must love. May, can, or must he love? 

We may, can, or must love. May, can, or must we love ? 

Ye, or you may, can, or must love. May, can, or must ye, or you love'' 

They may, can, or must love. May, can, or must they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I may, can, or must be loving, May, can, or must I be loving ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be — Mayst, canst, or must thou be — 
He may, can, or must be loving. May, can, or must he be loving ? 
We may, can, or must be lovin2:, May, can, or must v^•e be loving? 
You may, can, or must be loving. May, can, or must yoa be loving ? 
They may, can, or must be loving. May, can, or must liiey be loving? 

^ Eor Compound Form, see Present Tense of the Imperative Mode. 



POTENTIAL — PRESENT — IMPEBFECT. 335 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must I be loved ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be — Mayst, canst, or must thou be — 

He may, can, or must be loved. May, can, or must he be loved? 

We may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must we be loved ? 

You may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must you be loved ? 

They may, can, or must be loved. May, can, or must they be loved? 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, would, or should be. Might, could, would, or should I be? 
Thou mightst, couldst, &c., be, Mightst, couldst, &c., thou be? 

He might, could, would, &c., be. Might, could, would, &c., he be ? 
We might, could, would, &c., be, Might, could, would, &c., we be ? 
You might, could, would, &c., be. Might, could, would, &c., you be? 
They might, could, would, &c., be. Might, could, would, &c., they be? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, would, &c., love. Might, could, would, &c., I love ? 
Thou mightst, couldst, &c., love, Mightst, couldst, &c., thou love? 
He might, could, would, &c., love. Might, coujd, would, &c., he love ? 
We might, could, -^vould, &c., love, Might, could, would, &c., we love? 
Yau might, could, would, «&c., love. Might, could, would, &c., you love? 
They might, could, &c., love. Might, could, would, &c., they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c., be loving, Might, could, &c., I be loving? 

Thou mightst, &c., be loving, Mightst, &c., thou be loving? 

He might, could, &c., be loving. Might, could, &c., he be loving? 

We might, could, &c., be loving, Might, could, &c., we be loving? 

You might, could, &c., be loving. Might, could, &c., you be loving? 

They might, could, &c., be loving. Might, could, &c., they be loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c., be loved, Might, could, &c., I be loved ? 

Thou mightst, &c., be loved, Mightst, &c., thou be loved? 

He might, could, &c., be loved. Might, could, &c., he be loved? 

We might, could, &c., be loved, Might, could, &c., we be loved? 

You might, could, &c., be loved, Might, could, &c., you be loved? 

They might, could, &c., be loved. Might, could, &(-., they be loved? 

1. He would not come, because he could not afford the 
expense. 



336 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Porms, Direct and Interrogative 

I may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must I have been ? 
Thou mayst, canst, or must have — Mayst, canst, or must thou have — 
He may, can, or must have been. May, can, or must he have been ? 
We may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must we have been 1 
You may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must you have been ? 
They may, can, or must have been. May, can, or must they have been ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must have loved. May, can, or must I have loved ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must have — Mayst, canst, or must thou have — 

He may, can, or must have loved. May, can, or must he have loved? 

We may, can, or must have loved. May, can, or must we have loved? 

You may, can, or must have loved, May, can, or must you have loved ? 

They may, can, or must have loved. May, can, or must they have loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogativt. 

I may, can, &c., have been loving. May, can, &c., I have been loving? 

Thou mayst, &c., have been loving, Mayst, &c., thou have been loving ? 

He may, &c., have been loving. May, &c., he have been loving? 

We may, &c., have been loving, May, &c., we have been loving? 

You may, &c., have been loving-. May, &c., you have been loving? 

They may, &c., have been loving. May, &c., they have been loving? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, &c., have been loved. May, can, &c., I have been loved? 
Thou mayst, &c., have been loved, Mayst, &c., thou have been loved? 
He may, &c., have been loved. May, &c., he have been loved? 
We may, &c., have been loved. May, &c., we have been love^? 
You may, &c., have been loved. May, &c., you have been loved? 
They may, &c., have been loved. May, &c., they have been loved? 

THE SECOND DEFINITE PAST OR THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c., have been. Might, could, &c., I have been? 
Thou mightst, &c., have been, Mightst, &c., thou have been ? 

He might, could, &c., have been. Might, could, &c., he have been? 
We might, could, &c., have been. Might, could, &c., we have been? 
You mip:ht, could, &c., have been, Mio^ht, could, &c., you have been? 
They might, could, &c., have been. Might, could, &c., they have been? 



\ 

POTENTIAL MOOD — PLUPEKFECT TEKSE. 337 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c., have loved, Might, could, &c., I have loved ? 
Thou mightst, &c., have loved, Mightst, &c., thou have loved ? 
He might, could, &c., have loved. Might, could, &c., he have loved '^ 
We might, could, &c., have loved, Might, could, &c., we have loved ? 
You might, could, &c., have loved. Might, could, &c., you have loved ? 
They might, could, &c., have loved. Might, could, &c., they have loved 1 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, &c., have been loving. Might, &c., I have been loving ? 

Thou mightst — have been loving, Mightst — thou have been loving ? 

He might, &c., have been loving. Might, &c., he have been loving? 

We might, &c., have been loving. Might, &c., we have been loving? 

Tou might, &c., have been loving. Might, &c., you have been loving? 

They might, &c., have been loving. Might, &c., they have been loving? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Fonns, Direct and Interrogative. 

i might, &c., have been loved, Might, &c., I have been loved? 

Thou mightst — have been loved, Mightst, &c., thou have been loved ? 
He might, &c., have been loved. Might, &c., he have been loved ? 
We might, &c., have been loved, Might, &c., we have been loved ? 
You might, &c., have been loved. Might, &c., you have been loved? 
They might, &c., have been loved. Might, &c., they have been loved? 



SuBJUNCTiYE Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE, FROM THE INDICATIVE. 

Active VoicGj Simple Forms. 

Regular If I am, If thou art, If he, she, or it is. 

Form. If we are, If ye, or you are. If they are. 

Ancient If I be. If thou be. If he, she, or it be. 

Form. If we be, If ye, or you be. If they be. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
Reoular. If I love. If thou lovest. If he, she, or it loves. 

If we love. If ye, or you love. If they love. 
Ancient. If I love. If thou love. If he, she, or it lovo. 

If we love. If ye, or vou love, If they love. 
15 



338 THE GBAMMAB OF LANGUAGE. 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms. 
Regular. If I do love, If thou dost love, If he, she, or it does love. 

If we do love, If ye, or you do love. If they do love. 
Ancient. If I do love. If thou do love. If he, she, or it do love. 

If we do love, If ye, or you do love. If they do love. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 
Regular. If I am loving, If thou art loving, If he is loving. 

If we are loving, If ye, you are loving. If they are loving. 
Ancient. If I be loving, If thou be loving. If he be loving. 

If we be loving. If ye, you be loving. If they be loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient, 

If I am loved. If thou art loved, If he is loved. 

If we are loved. If ye, or you are loved. If they are loved. 

If I be loved. If thou be loved, If he be loved. 

If we be loved, If ye, or you be loved, If they be loved. 

PRESENT TENSE, FROM THE POTENTIAL. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct 

If I may, can, or must be. If we may, can, or must be, 

If thou mayst, canst, or must be, If ye, or you may, can, or must be. 

If he may, can, or must be. If they may, can, or must be. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

ir I may, can, or must love. If we may, can, or must love, 

If thou mayst, canst, or must love. If ye, or you may, can, or must love. 

If he may, can, or must love. If they may, can, or must love. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must be loving, If I may, can, or must be loved. 
If thou mayst, canst, or must be — If thou mayst, canst, or must be — 
If he may, can, or must be loving. If he may, can, or must be loved. 
If we may, can, or must be loving, If we may, can, or must be loved. 
If you may, can, or must be loving, If you may, can, or must be loved, 
If they may, can, or must be loving. If they may, can, or must be loved 

2. If I may come, I will be there at ten o'clock. If I 
may ride, I would rather do so than walk. 

For the Ancient Form, substitute matj and cauy for mayst and caiist. 



PEESEITT — IMPEEFECT TET^SE. 339 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT TENSE, FROM THE INDICATIVE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
Reg. If I was, If thou wast, If he, she, or it was. 

If we were, If ye, or you were. If they were. 

Anc. If I were. If thou wert. If he, she, or it were. 

If we were, If ye, or you were. If they were. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I loved. If thou lovedst. If he, she, or it loved. 

If we loved. If ye, or you loved. If they loved. 

If I loved. If thou loved, If he, she, or it loved. 

If we loved, If ye, or you loved. If they loved. 

Active Voice, Em.phatic Forms, Regular and Ancient, 

If I did love. If thou didst love, If he, she, or it did love. 

If we did love. If ye, or you did love, If they did love. 

If I did love. If thou did love. If he, she, or it did love. 

If we did love, If ye, or you did love, If they did love. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Form.s, Regular and Ancient. 

If I was loving. If thou wast loving. If he was loving. 

If we were loving. If you were loving. If they were loving. 

If I were loving. If thou wert loving. If he were loving. 

If we were loving, If you were loving, If they were loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I was loved. If thou wast loved. If he was loved. 

If we were loved. If you were loved. If they were loved. 

If I were loved. If thou wert loved. If he were loved. 

If we were loved. If you were loved. If they were loved. 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT, FROM THE POTENTIAL. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct 
If I might, could, would, &c., be. If we might, could, would, &c., be, 
If thou mightst, couldst, &c., be, If you might, could, &c., be. 
If he might, could, would, &c., be. If they might, could, &c., be. 

For the Ancient Form, substitute might, could, would, and should, for mightst^ 
cozvlast wouldst, and shouldst. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c., love. If we might, could, would &c., love, 

If thou mightst, couldst, &c., love, If you mi.2:ht, could, &c., love, 
If he might, could, &c., love. If they might, could, &c., love. 



340 THE aRAMMAR OF LAj^-GUAGE. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct* 

If I might, could, &c., be loving, If I might, could, &c., be loved, 
If thou mightst, &c., be loving, If thou mightst, &c., be loved, 
If he might, could, &c., be loving. If he might, could, &c., be loved. 
If we might, could, (S:c., be loving. If we might, could, &c., be loved, 
If you might, could, &c., be loving, If you might, could, &c., be loved, 
If they might, &c., be loving. If they might, could, &c., be loved. 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TEXSE, FROM THE INDICATIVB. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 

If I have been, If thou hast been, If he, she, or it has been 

If we have been, If ye, or you have been, If they have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form. 

If I have loved, If thou hast loved. If he, she, or it has loved 

If we have loved, If you have loved. If they have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice. 

If I have been loving, If I have been loved. 

If thou hast been loving, If thou hast been loved. 

If he, she, or it has been loving. If he, she, or it has been loved. 

If we have been loving, If we have been loved. 

If ye, or you have been loving. If ye. or you have been loved, 

If they have been loving. If they have been loved. 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE, FROM THE POTENTIAL. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must have been. If we may, can, &c., have been, 
If thou mayst, &c., have been, If you may, can, &c., have been, 
If he may, can, &c., have been. If they may, can, &c., have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must have loved. If we may, can, &c., have loved. 
If thou mayst, &c., have loved. If you may, can, &c., have loved. 
If he may, can, &c., have loved. If they may, can, &c., have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I may, &c., have been loving, If I may, &c., have been loved, 
If thou mayst, — have been loving. If thou mayst, &c., have been loved, 
If he may, &c., have been loving. If he may, &c., have been loved. 
If we may, &c., have been loving. If we may, &c., have been loved, 
If you may, &c., have been loving, If you may, &c., have been loved, 
If they may, &c., have been loving. If they may, &c., have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD — PLUPERFECT. 341 

THE SECOND DEFINITE PAST OR THE PLUPERFECT TENSE, FROM THE 
IKDICATIYE. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct 

If I had been, If thou hadst been, If he, she, or it had been, 

K we had been, If ye, or you had been, If they had been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I had loved, If we had loved, 

If thou hadst loved. If ye, or you had loved, 

If he, she, or it had loved. If they had loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I had been loving, If I had been loved. 

If thou hadst been loving, If thou hadst been loved, 

If he, she, or it had been loving. If he, she, or it had been loved. 

If we had been loving. If we had been loved. 

If ye, or you had been loving, If ye, or you had been loved, 

If they had been loving. If they had been loved. 

THE SECOND DEFINITE OR THE PLUPERFECT, FROM THE 
POTENTIAL. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct 

If I might, could, &c., have been. If we might, could, &c., have been, 
If thou mightst, &c., have been, If you might, could, &c., have been. 
If he might, could, &c., have been. If they might, could — have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c., have loved. If we might, could, &c., have loved, 
If thou mightst, &c., have loved. If you might, could, &c., have loved. 
If he might, could, &c., have loved. If they might, could — have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct 

If I might, &c., have been loving. If I might, &c., have been loved, 
If thou mightst have been loving. If thou mightst — have been loved, 
If he might, &c., have been loving. If he might, &c,, have been loved. 
If we might, &c., have been loving. If we might, &c., have been loved, 
If you might — have been loving. If you might, &c., have been loved. 
If they might — have been loving. If they might, &c., have been loved. 
3. Be thou a ghost, or goblin, I'll speak to thee. If 
thou be a ghost — 



342 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

4. Knew he this truth, enough for man to know ; — 

THE INDEFmiTE FUTURE OR THE FIRST FUTURE, FROM THE INDIOATTTlt 
Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will be, If we shall, or will be, 

If thou shalt, or Avilt be, If ye, or you shall, or \vill be, 

If he, she, or it shall, or will be. If they shall, or will be. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will love, If we shall, or will love, 

If thou shalt, or wilt love, If ye, or you shall, or will love. 

If he, she, or it shall, or will love. If they shall, or will love. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I shall, or will be loving. If I shall, or will be loved, 

If thou shalt, or wilt be loving. If thou shalt, or wilt be loved, 

If he shall, or will be loving. If he, she, or it shall — be loved. 

If we shall, or will be loving. If we shall, or will be loved, 

If ye, or you shall — be loving, If ye, or you shall, or will be lovedj 

If they shall, or will be loving. If they shall, or will be loved. 

THE DEFIXITE FUTURE OR THE SECOND FUTURE, FROM THE INDICATIVE, 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will have been, If we shall, or will have been, 

If thou shalt, or wilt have been, If ye, or you shall — have been. 
If he, she, or it shall — have been. If they shall, or will have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will have loved. If we shall, or will have loved, 

If thou shalt, or wilt have loved, If ye, or you shall — have loved. 
If he, she, or it shall — have loved. If they shall, or will have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

[f I shall, or will have been loving, If I shall, or will have been loved, 
[f thou shalt have been loving. If thou shalt have been loved. 
If he — shall have been loving. If he — shall have been loved. 
If we shall have been loving. If we shall have been loved. 

If re, or you shall have been loving, If ye, or you shall have been loved, 
I 'hey shall have been loving. If they shall have been loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, TO SEE. 



343 



383. An Outline of the Conjugation of the Trans- 
itive Verb, To see, Irregular. Arranged according to 

Tense. 

In the following, the Singular is given ; let the pupils supply the PIoraL 
Pkincipal Parts, To see, I saw. Seeing, Seen, 



PRESENT TENSE. 



(NilNITIYE MOOD. To see, 

PARTICIPIAL MOOD. Seeing, 

INDICATIVE. 

SIMP. I ; 

Emp. 



\ Direct. I see, 

[ Inter. See I ? 

[ Direct. I do see, 

Inter. Do I see? 



Peeipheastic. 



Act. 



Pas. 



i Direct. I am seeing, 

I Inter. Am I seeing ? 

[ DiMct. 1 am seen, 

I Inter. Am I seen ? 



To be seeing, 
Being seen. 



Thou seest. 
S.eest thou ? 
Thou dost see. 
Dost thou see? 



Thou art seeing, 
Art thou seeing ? 
Thou art seen. 
Art thou seen ? 



To be seen. 



He sees, &c 
Sees he ? &c. 
He does see, &c 
Does he see? «fec 



He is seeing. 
Is he seeing ? 
He is seen. 
Is he seen ? 



IMPERATIVE. 

Peeipheastic. •<! 
POTENTIAL. 



Simp. 
Emp. 

j Act. 
Pas. 



See thou, or see you, or see. 

Do thou see, or do you see, or do see. 
') Be thou seeing, or be you seeing, or be seeing. 
I Do thou be seeing, or do you be seeing, or do be seeing. 
I Be thou seen, or be you seen, or be seen. 
I Do thou be seen, or do be seen, or be seen. 



Act. 
Pas. 



Peeipheastic, 

Direct. 

Inter. 

Direct. 

Inter. 



1 may see, 
May I see ? 

I may be seeing, 
May I be seeing ? 
I may be seen, 
May I be seen ? 



Thou mayst see, 
Mayst thou see ? 



He may see. 
May he see ? 



Thou mayst be seeing. He may be seeing. 

Mayst thou be seeing ? May he be seeing? 

Thou mayst be seen, He may be seen. 

Mayst thou be seen ? May he be seen ? 



SUBJUNCTIVE, from the Indicative. 

Qt,™ i R^S"- If I see. If 

°^^- 1 ^7ic. If I see, If 

TTw^ ' J P^^S"- If I do see. If 

^^' JAnc. If I do see. If 

Peeipheastic. 

j Reg. If I am seeing. If 

I Anc. If I be seeing, If 

J Reg. If I am seen. If 

( Anc. If I be seen, If 



Act. 



Pas. 



thou seest, 
thou see, 
thou dost see, 
thou do see, 

thou art seeing, 
thou be seeing, 
thou art seen, 
thou be seen, 



SUBJUNCTIVE, from the Potential. 

Simp \^''^' If I may see, If 

°^-^^- ] Anc. If I may see, If 

Peeipheastic. 

If I may be seeing. If 

If I may be seeing. If 

Pah j ^^o' If I nifiv be seen, If 

^^' \ Anc. If I may be seen, If 



Act. 



jReg. 
I Anc. 



«•{: 



thou mayst see, 
thou may see, 

thou mayst be seeing, 
thou may bo seeing, 
thou mayst be seen, 
thou may be seen, 



If he sees. 
If he see. 
If he does see. 
If he do see. 



If he is seeing. 
If he be seeing. 
If he is seen. 
If he be aeen. 



If he may see. 
If he may see. 

If he may be seeing. 
If he may be seeing. 
If he may be seen. 
If he may be seen. 



344 THE Gf'iElAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. t 

384. Synopsis of To teach, Transitiye and Irreg- 
ular. 

Pbincipal Parts. To teach, I taught, — teaching, — taught. 
Present Tense, Active and Passive. 

Infinitive. To teach. To be teaching, To be taught. 

Participle. — • teaching, — being taught. 
First Person, Singular. 

Indicative. I teach. Teach I? I do teach. Do I teach? lam 
teaching. Am I teaching ? I am taught. Am I taught ? Imp. — 
Potential. I may, can, or must teach. May, can, or must I teach ? I 
may, can, or must be teaching. May, can, or must I be teaching ? I 
may, can, or must be taught. May, can, or must I be taught ? Sub- 
junctive. If I teach. If I do teach. If I am teaching. If I am 
taught. If I may teach. If I may be teaching. If I may be taught. 

Second Person, Singular. 

Indicative. Thou teachest, or you teach. Teachest thou, or teach 
you 1 Thou dost teach, or you do teach. Dost thou teach, or do you 
teach ? Thou art teaching, or you are teaching. Art thou teaching, or 
are you teaching? Thou art taught, or you are taught. Art thou 
taught, or are you taught? Imperative. Teach thou, or teach you, 
or teach. Do thou teach, or do you teach, or do teach. Be thou teach- 
ing, or be you teaching, or be teaching. Do thou be teaching, or do 
you be teaching, or do be teaching. Be thou taught, or be you taught, 
or be taught. Do thou be taught, or do you be taught, or do be taught. 
Potential. Thou mayst teach. Mayst thou teach ? Thou mayst be 
teaching. Mayst thou be teaching ? Thou mayst be taught. Mayst 
thou be taught? Subjunctive. If thou teachest, or if thou, or you 
teach. If thou dost teach, or if thou, or you do teach. If thou art, or 
you are teaching, or if thou, or you be teaching. If thou art, or you 
are taught, or if thou, or you be taught. If thou mayst teach, or if 
thou, or you may teach. If thou mayst be teaching, or if thou, or you 
may be teaching. If thou mayst be taught, or if thou, or you may be 
taught. 

Third Person, Singular. 

Indicative. He teaches school. Teaches he school? He does 
teach school. Does he teach school ? Jle is teaching school. Is he 
teaching school ? School is taught by him. Is school taught by him ? 
Potential. He may teach school. May he teach school ? He may 
be teaching school. May he be teaching school? School may be 
taught by him. May school be taught by him ? Subjunctive. If he 
teaches school, or if he teach school. If he does teach school, or if he 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 345 

do teach school. If he is teaching school, or if he be teaching school. 
If school is taught by him, or if school be taught by him. If he may, 
can, or must teach school. If he may, can, or must be teaching school. 
If school may, can, or must be taught by him. 

385. To Conjugate a verb Negatively^ place tiio 
negative adverb not^ after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary. In the Infinitive, and Participial Moods, 
place the negative before the verb. 

Infinitive. Not to love. Not to be loving. Not to be loved. Not 
to have loved. Not to have been loving. Not to have been loved. 
Participial. Not loving. Not being loved. Not having been loved. 
Indicative. I love not. Love I not? I do not love. Do I not love ? 
I am not loving. Am I not loving ? I am not loved. Am I not loved ? 
Imperative. Love not thou. Do not thou love. Be not thou loving. 
Do thou not be loving. Love not. Do not love. Potential. I may 
not love. May not I love ? I may not be lovina:. May not I be loving ? 
I may not be loved. May not I be loved ? Subjunctive. Same as 
the Indicative, and Potential, by prefixing a Limiting Connective. 

Syntax of the Verh. 

386. Fifth, the Syntax of the Verb, 

Mules for Position of Verhs. 

387. Rule I. An English Verh^ which is not emphatic^ 
must follow its subject noun. 

288. Rule II. An English Verh^ which is emphatic^ if 
simple^ must precede its subject noun ; if comjmund^ one of its 
auxiliaries must precede its suhject noun. 

Exception. — In a poetic narration, the Yerb may take any 
place in the sentence ; as, — 

Examples. 

1. My right there is none to dispute. No one is there to 
dispute my right. 

2. Whom ye have taken and with wicked hands crucified 
and slain, him declare I nnto you. 

15* 



346 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Rules for the Attrihutes or Properties of Verts. 

SS89. Rule III. When the suhject noun names the actor or 
first primary idea, the verb must he put in the Active Voice. 

39 0. Rule TV. When the suhject noun names the receiver^ 
the verh must he put in the Passive Voice. 

391. Rule V. When the suhject noun is in the nominative 
case, the Verh mast he limited hy the Person and Numher of its 
suhject 7ioun. 

First Exception. — "When the subject noun of a subject 
clause is in the nominative case, its verb must not be limited 
by Person and Number. 

Second Exception. — "When the subject noun of a subject 

clause is in the nominative case, its verb must be limited 

by the Person and Number of the subject noun of the 

clause, instead of the Person and Number of the subject 
clause. 

Third Exception. — In the English language, although a 
subject noun be in the nominative, its verb, in the participial 
mode, must not be limited by Person and Number. 

292. Rule YL When we is used for I, and you for 
THOU, the Plural Numher must he attributed to the verh. 

393. Rule YII. When the connector, and, joins the 
clauses of a compound sentence, contracted in its cffirmers, the 
verh which is expressed must tahe the Plural Numher^ altliough 
its own suhject noun may he in the Singular. 

First Exception. — When a distributive adjective is joined to 
a subject noun, Rule YIL must not be applied to its verb. 

3. Every man, woman, and child demands it. 

Second Excej^tion. — When subject nouns are used in appo- 
sition, or synonymously, Rule YII. must not be applied to 
the verb. 



THE SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 347 

4. This poet, statesman, and general, was born in ob- 
scurity. 

394:. Rule YIII. When a compound sentence^ whose clauses 
are Joined by the connector^ or^ u contracted in its affirmers 
the verh expressed must he limited hy the Person and Number of 
its own subject noun. 

5. Either I, or they are to do it. Either they, or I am to 
do it. 

First Exception, If the second subject noun be explanatory 
of the first, the verb must be limited by the Person and 
Number of the first subject noun. 

6. The Palisades, a row of sharpened stakes, defend the 
building. A row of sharpened stakes or palisades defends 
the building. 

393. Rule IX. An intransitive ver\ between two subject 
nouRs^ must be limited by the Person and Number of the subject 
noun before it^ unless the sentence be transposed, 

7. I am dust and ashes. These dollars are my money. 
My money is these dollars. Death is the wages of sin. 

39G. Rule X. When a collective subject noun names a 
group of objects as a unit or one, the Singular Number must be 
attributed to its verb ; but, when the subject noun refers to the 
individuals of a group, the Plural Number must be attributed to 
its verb. 

8. The army was defeated with great slaughter. 

9. The Committee were unanimous in their opinions. 

10. The jury was charged very carefully by the judge, and 
yet they could not agree. 

397. Rule XI. When the Verb is limited by person and 
number, it must be used in a Limited or Finite Mode. 

998. Rule XII. When the Verb is not limited by person 
and number, it must be used in an Unlimited or Infinite 
Mode. 



848 THE GRAMMAK OF LANGUAGE, 



Analysis of the Verh, 

1. The^ son' sought^ to* recover^ Ms'' lost® estates^ 
General Analysis. Logically, the son, etc., is a complex tliought, 
expressed by the formula ; — 

F S T = F S --z^- Translate. 

I b 1 

Rhetorically, the son, etc., is a complex sentence, having two clau- 
ses ; of wliich, the first clause, the son sought, is a principal independent 
clause, and the second clause, [himself] to recover his lost estates, is a 
subordinate clause, dependent in thought and in form, used as the first 
object of the aflSrmer, sought ; its subject is son, understood ; its affirmer, 
recover, related to the subject, son, by to ; its first object, estate, having, 
as its adjuncts, his, lost. 

Special Analysis. Sought^ logically, is an action or second primary 
idea ; rhetorically, it is the predicate of the subject, son ; therefore, 
grammatically, sought is a Yerb. It is an irregular, transitive, simple 
Yerb ; from the Yerb, to seek ; its principal parts are ; to seek, son 
sought, seeking, sought. It has the attributes, active voice, third per- 
son, singular number, indicative mode, past tense, simple form, historic. 
Its Forms are ; Simple, the son sought (Here !) ; Emphatic, the son did 
seek ; Periphrastic, Active, the son was seeMng ; Passive, the son wa.s 
sought. Pules IIL, Y., XL -_.__- 

Graramatical Analysis or Parsing. Eecovefr, is a regular, transitive, 
simple Yerb ; from the Yerb, to recover ; its principal parts are ; to 
recover, son recovered, recovering, recovered. It has the attributes, 
active voice, no person, no number (Pule Y. — First Exception), infin- 
itive mode, (Pule XII.) present tense ; etc. 



ANALYSES OF THE VERB. 



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THE GBAJyiMAR OF LANGUAGE. 









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ADVERBS. — DEFINITIONS. 351 

Adverbs. 
299. The science of the Adverb includes ; first^ the 
Definitions ; second^ the Classifications ; third^ the Attri- 
butes, and the Means of knowing them ; fourth^ the 
Conjugation; snadfifihj the Syntax of the Adverb. 

!The word, adverh,^ means 
joined to a verb. 
An Adverb is a word^ 
a phrase^ or a clause used, in a sentence^ as an. adjunct of a verb 
or of another adjunct, to which it is not related hy of, or hy an 
apostrophe. 

Note I. Adverbs are generally formed by the contraction of a re- 
lator and a second object, sometimes with, and sometimes without, 
adjunct words. 

Examples. 

1. All orders thankfully received, and very promptly 
executed. All orders received in a thankful manner, and 
-executed in a very prompt manner. 

Parsing. Thankfully is an advert ; because, it is used as an adjunct 
of the verb, received. 

Very is an advert ; because, it is used as an adjunct of the adverb, 
promptiy. 

Promptly is an adverb ; because, etc. 

Very is an adverb ; because, it is an adjunct of the adjective, 
prompt 

Note II. In the rhetorical use of language, Adjectives or Ad- 
nouns, and Adverbs are described as adjuncts. Their grammatical 
distinction is that Adjectives are adjuncts of nouns, while, adverbs are 
adjuncts of words which are not nouns. In both cases, adjuncts related 
by o/, or by an apostrophe, and the elements of a compound adjective, 
are excepted. 

2. Now is the time for war ; we'll talk of peace no more. 

3. He was truly more energetic than his brother; but less 
thoughtfully inclined. 

4. Raise her up tenderly^ lift her with care, fashioned so 
slenderly, so young and so fair. 

1 Adverb, "oe/rb^ ; ac2*= a^, joined, near. 



352 THE GRAMMAE OF LAKatTAGE. 

• Note III. Adverbs, like pronouns, are not absolutely necessary 
parts of speech. They are, however, convenient and pleasing, because 
they both shorten an expression and render it euphonious. 

5. Piously, tenderly, devotedly, the mother bent o'er the 
lowly couch of her only child. 

The Classifications. 

301. Second^ the Classifications. Adverbs are 

classified in two ways ; according to the mood or feeling 
of the narrator ; and, according to tlieir signification, 

SOS. First Classification. According to the mood 

or feeling of the narrator^ Adverbs are divided into six 

kinds ; namely, Interrogative^ Responsive^ Affirmative^ 

Negative^ Intensive^ and Excla^mative. 

Note I. Instead of calling these Interrogative Adverbs, Responsive 
Adverbs, etc., they may be described as Adverbs used Interrogatively^ 
Responsively^ etc. 

303. An Interrogative Adverb is one which is used in 
asking a question. 

Examples. 

1. How did he behave ? When did he come ? Where was 
the boy ? Why are you here ? 

304:. A Eesponsive Adverb is one which is used in an- 
swering a question. 

2. He behaved well; properly^ badly. He came yesterday ; 
just now ; to-day. The boy was here ; there ; yonder. 

30o. Aoi Affirmative Adverb is one which repeats or gives 
emphasis to an answer. 

3. Have you come? Yes^ I have come. Has he gone? 
Verily^ he has gone. Is this all ? Indeed^ it is. 

30G. A Negative Adverb is one used in contradicting 
a question^ or denying an assertion. 

4. Have you been there? I have not been there. No I 



SECOND CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 353 

Lit. Def. The word, intensivej^ means liJce that which turns in. 

307. An Intensiye Adverb is one which strengthens or 
adds force to its principal adverh. 

5. He has neither too much nor too little, who has Just 
enough. 

Parsing. Too is an intensive Adverb, adjunct of much. Too is inten- 
sive, because it enlarges or adds to the meaning of its principal word, 
much. 

308. An ExcLAMATiYE Adverh is one which is used to ex- 
press feeling^ passion^ or emotion, 

6. Merrily every bosom boundeth. Merrily, oh I Merrily^ 
oh! 

7. Now school is done, away we fly. Hurrah ! Hurrah ! 
Hurrah ! 

309. Second Classification. According to significa- 
tion^ Adverbs are divided into five kinds ; Adverbs of 
Manner., Time., Order., Place., and Degree, 

3 1 0. Adverls of Manner show how, or why an act occurs, 
or a property exists ; and hence, include those, which express 
ccmse, douht, mode, or quality. 

Examples. 

1. Interrogative, How did you find the book ? By seek- 
ing carefully. 

Pa/rsing. How is an interrogative Adverb of manner; adjunct of 
did find. 

Carefully is responsive Adverb of manner ; adjunct of seeking. 

2. Interrogative. Why sports the tender lamb ? Because 
he fears no evil now. 

3. Douht. Perhaps the ship will come to-morrow. It may, 
possibly, be here now. 

Substitute perchance, peradventure, haply, etc., for perhaps, or possibly, 
and then analyze them, 

1 Intensive, swe, ; ten, stretches, tends ; in, witliin, inward. 



354 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

4. Mode. Thus have mankind lived and died. In this 
manner^ etc. 

5. So conduct thyself that thou live not like a bankrupt in 
spirits. 

311. Adverbs of Time show when, or how often an act 
occursj or exists ; as, present, ;past, future, relative, absolute, and 
occasional time. 

6. Interrogative. When will we recite ? Now ; presently ; 

to-morrow. 

At what time will we recite ? At this time we wiU recite. 

7. How often have you recited? Daily; weekly; seldom^ 
etc. 

8. Time present. It rains now, and yet the sun shines. 

9. Time past. As I have already said ; this happened yes- 
terday ; long ago ; recently ; lately ; anciently, etc. 

10. Time future. We shall know soon; to-morrow; ere- 
long ; hy-and-hy, etc. 

11. Time relative. He came early ; late; seasonably, etc. 
] 2. James will tell us the news, when he comes. 

When will James tell us the news ? Answer. When he comes. In 
this example, the clause, When he comes^ is used as the adjunct of 
tell; while, when is used as the adjunct of comes. The formula is, 

Y 

X y/ . j X Y ^' Translation = X, James ; Y will tell us, when he 
comes; Z, the news. But Yr= Y + X Y. That is; 7, wiU teU [to] 
us ; ( + ) when ; X, he; Y, comes. 

Note I. Some prefer to make when a Connective Adverb, connecting 
the two clauses, and qualifying both verbs at the same time. This 
resolves the example into, James wiU teU us the news at that time, at 
which time James comes. 

13. "When James comes, then he will tell us the news. 

14. Tirae absolute. It will remain here /or ever; perpetu- 
ally ; continually ; eternally, etc. 

15. Time occasional. Ralph is here often; seldom; occa- 
sionally ; daily ; weekly, etc. 

313. Adverbs of Order show the relation of events as to 
direction, sequences^ etc. 



THE ATTEIBUTES OF THE ADVERB. 355 

16. Thej ^YQMi directly ; indirectly; correctly; orderly; dis- 
orderly^ etc. 

313. Adverbs of Place show when, whence, or whither the 
act occurs, or exists. 

17. Interrogative. Where is my hook? Ans. Here, 
In what place is my book ? In this place is your book. 

18. Whence com est thou; is it far hence f 
From what place comest thou ; is it far /ro??^ this place f 

19. Whither shall we flee ? Answer. Thither. 
To luhai place shall we flee ? To this place ye shall flee. 

20. In which place. You will find it here; there; every- 
where; ahove, etc. 

21. From which place. Whence we came. Thence we 
came. Hence we came. 

From which place we came. From thai place we came. From this 
place we came. 

Note II. Before these Adverbs of place, the preposition should 
not be used. Whence we came : not, From whence we came. 

22. To which place. Whither thou goest, I will go. 
314:. Adverbs of Degree show how much is intended. 

23. Inter. How much owest thou? Ans. Much ; little^ etc. 

24. Equality. We have enough ; as much as we desire. 

25. Abundance. The dress is very rich; exceedingly; ex- 
travagantly, etc. 

26. The fruit is fully ripe ; entirely ; completely ; perfectly. 

Note III. Those Adverbs, which, as relative adjuncts, join one 
clause to another, are sometimes called Conjunctive Adverls. 

27. Remain until I return. 

The Attributes. 
315. Third, the Attributes, and the Means of 
OTOWiNa them. Some Adverbs have an attribute or 
property called Comparison, 



356 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Note I. Many Adverbs do not have this attribute ; or, many 
Adverbs are not compared. 

The Comparison of the Adverh, 

31G. Comparison is an attrihute, which an adverh derives 
from its use in comparing two or more verhs^ two or more adverhs^ 
or two or more adjectives, in regard to the same attribute or 
property. 

Note II. The Comparisons of the adjuncts, Adjective, Adverh, is 
the same in purpose and in form. The purpose of each being to com- 
pare two or more expressions with reference to the same attribute in 
each ; the Comparison of the Adjective being a comparison between 
two or more nouns ; while, the Comparison of the Adverb is a com- 
parison between two or more verbs, two or more adverbs, or two or 
more adjectives. 

Examples. 

1. I came near, you came nearer, but he came nearest. 

2. John acts wisely, Jane, more vnsely, Euth, most wisely. 

317. Adverbs have two forms of Comparison; the 
Regular, and the Irregular. 

318. Adverbs have tliree degrees or grades of Com- 
parison ; namely, the Positive, the Comparative, and the 
Superlative. 

The Positive Degree. 

319. The Positive Degree is attributed to an adv&rl) when 
it is used to compare a certain property of a verb with the same 
property in all other verbs; or, lohen it compares a certain 
property of an adjunct loith the same property in all other 
adjuncts. 

Examples. 

1. He acts wisely. She acts well. The people drew near. 
They are here now. They run together. 

Parsing. Wisely is an adverb of manner. It has the attribute, 
positive Degree; because, it compares the verb, acts, with all other 
actions of this kind. 



THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 357 

2. He can do much who can keep himself still. 

T'he Comparative Degree. 

330. The CoMPARATiYE Degree is attributed to an adverb 
when it is used to compare one verb with another^ or one adjunct 
with another adjunct^ in reference to the same attribute or property. 

3. He acts more wisely than his brother [acts]. His house 
is more handsomely furnished than yours, but it is less pleas- 
antly situated. The crowd drew nearer the judgment seat. 

Parsing. More wisely is an adverb of manner. It has the comparor 
tive Degree ; because, it is used in comparing the first verb, acts, with 
the second verb, acts, in reference to the same attributes, wisely. 

4. This road is more direct than that road, but that road is 
more travelled than this. 

Parsing, More is an adverb of degree. It has the comparative 
Degree ; because, it is used in comparing the adjective, direct, which is 
expressed, with the adjective, direct, not expressed, with reference to 
the same property. 

Note I. In the Comparative Degree, the second clause of the com- 
parison is introduced by the connector, than. Hence, the subject of 
this second clause should always be in the nominative case. A few errors 
in this respect are in common usage, probably because they are more 
euphonious than the correct forms. See Prepositions. 

5. ^'Than whom, none higher sat." Than who [person], 
none higher sat. Than which person sat none higher sat. 

6. ^' Than him, none was ever braver." Than he, none 
was ever braver. None was ever braver than he was brave. 

The Superlative Degree. 

33 1 . The Superlative Degree is attributed to an adverb, 
when it is used to compare one verb with a definite number of 
"verbs, or an adjunct with a definite number of adjuncts, with 
reference to the same attribute or property. 

7. He acted most wisely of them all. The man who came 
nearest to the house, entered first. 



858 THE GEAMMAR OF LAITaUAGE. 

Parsing. Most is an Adverb of degree. It has the attribute, super' 
lative Degree ; because, it is used in comparing one Adverb, vjisely, with 
certain other Adverbs, wisely, understood, in reference to the same 
property, degree. 

8. The slow horse ran slowly. The slower horse ran more 
slowlj. The slowest horse ran most slowly. 

Note II. "Wlien no is used as an Adverb, it must be used as an 
adjunct of an adjective in the comparative degree. No should never 
be used as an adjunct of a verb. 

9. No sooner do they meet than they fight. 

10. Tell me whether you will, or not. That is, or will not 

Error. Teh me whether you vnU, or no. 

Note III. The repetition of a negative Adverb strengthens the 
negation. 

11. I will never ^ never ^ never forget you, 

Note IY. Two negations in the same clause destroy each other 
and render the meaning affirmative. 

12. I did not do nothing. Then you did do something. 

13. Nor did they not perceive their evil flight. 

Note Y. Never is composed of not ever ; and hence, is directly the 
opposite of ever in signification, and should not be confounded with it. 

14. I have seldom, or never failed to perceive it. 
Faulty. I have seldom, or ever failed to perceive it. 

15. Listen not to the voice of the charmer, charm he never 
so wisely. 

This should be, charm he ever so wisely. 

16. Take her up tenderly. Lift her with care; 
Fashioned so tenderly, young, and so fair. 

17. Welcome the stranger with kindly affection ; 
Hopefully, truthfully, not with dejection. 

18. Ten censure wrong for one who writes amiss; 
A fool might once himself alone expose ; 
Now one, in verse, makes many more in prose. 



MEANS OF KKOWINO THE DEGREES. 359 

Means of knowing Degrees of Comparison, 

333. The different Degrees, used in the Comparison 
of Adverbs, may be known in three ways ; — 

First The Positive Degree is the first or radical 
form of the Adverb. 

Second, The Comparative Degree, in its Regular 
Comparison, is formed by adding the sufl&x modifica- 
tion, er, to the Positive ; or, by using the adjuncts, 
more, less^ with the Positive. 

Examples. 

1. Those who came nearer^ were more pleasantly situated 
for hearing what was said, but the others were less crowded. 

The Comparative Degree, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by using a word different from the Positive. 

2. This class reads well, but that class reads letter ; while, 
chat class reads worse. 

Third, The Superlative Degree, in its Regular Com- 
parison, is formed by adding the suffix modification, est^ 
fco the Passive form ; or, by using the adjuncts, most^ 
least^ with the Positive. 

3. Some drew near, while others drew nearer, but these 
drew nearest. 

4. When I speak soberly, you speak more soberly, he 
speaks most soherly. 

5. That stream flows rapidly, the next flows less rapidly, 
while this flows the least rapidly. 

The Superlative Degree, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by substituting another word for the Positive. 

6. You read well, Charles reads better, but Louise reads 
^ zst. 



360 



THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



3S3. The Comparison of Adverbs is shown by the fol- 
lowing ;— ^ 
TABLE. 



REaULAR COMPARISONS. 



Near 


nearer 


nearest 


Nearly 


more nearly 


most nearly 


Nearly 


less nearly 


least nearly 


"Wisely 


more wisely 


most wisely 


Wisely 


less wisely 

mREGULAR COMPARISONS. 


least wisely 


Positvoe. 


ComparaUve. 


Superlatt'oe, 


Well 


better 


best 


Badly, or ill 


worse 


worst 


Much 


more 


most 


Little 


less 


least 


Ear 


farther 


farthest 


Eorth 


further 

DEFECTIYE IN COMPARISON. 


furthest 


Positive. 


Comparati/06. 


Swperlative, 




formerly 


first 


Upper 




uppermost 



334. Fifth, the Syntax of the Adverb. 

Rules for Position. 

333. Rule I. Generally^ an Adverb^ which is an adjunct 

of a simple verh^ must he placed after the verb. 



Examples. 

1. The letter came duly. We came here hastily. 

330. Rule II. Generally, an Adverh, which is an adjunct 

of a compound verh, must he placed after the first auxiliary verb. 

2. The letter has duly come to hand. We have hastily 
come here. 



THE SYNTAX OF THE ADYEEB. 361 

Note I. Rules I. and II. are general Rules to "which, there are 
many exceptions, among which are the following; — 

First Exception. When an Adverb is emphatic, it is placed 
at the beginning of a sentence ; as, the Adverb, generally^ in 
the Rules given above. 

Second Exception. When the sentence can be made more 
euphonious by placing the Adverb elsewhere ; as, — 

3. Fortunately, he had already left the room. He had, 
fortunately, already left the room. He had already left the 
room, fortunately. He had fortunately left the room already. 
Already he had fortunately left the room. etc. 

337. Rule III. An Adverb, which is used as an adjunct 
of an adverh or of an adjective, must precede its principal word. 

4. Each student was very eager to win the most honorable 
position in the class ; hence, all sought it more earnestly than 
before. 

Exception. — An Adverb, compounded with its principal, 
'may be placed either before or after its principal. 

Rules for Attributes. 

328. Rule IV. When the comparison is made between 
two attributes only, the Adverb must be put in the Comparative 
Degree. 

5. The girl was more nearly allied to the family than the 

boy. Of the two, the girl was more nearly allied to the 

family. 

Incorrect. ' Of the two, the girl was the most nearly allied to the 
family. 

330. Rule V. When a comparison between one attrihute 
and a definite number, three or more, is made, the adverb must 
have the Superlative Degree. 

6. Of the three children, the girl is the most nearly allied 
to the family. 

Incorrect. Of the three children, the girl is the more nearly allied 
to the family. 

16 



862 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Analysis of the Adverb. 

1. He" began^ early ° in* the^ morIling^ 

General Analysis. Logically, he began, etc., is a simple thought of 
two parts ; he is the primary idea in the first part ; began early in the 
morning, is the second part, of which, began is the second primary idea; 
early, an idea subordinate to began ; in, idea of relation between morn- 
ing and began ; the, subordinate idea, having an incidental relation to 
morning; morning, an idea subordinate to began, joined by the idea of 
relation, in. 

Rhetorically, he began, etc., is a simple sentence, actively constructed; 
its principal words are, he, began; its adjunctive words, early, in, 
morning ; its relator, in. 

Special Analysis. Rhetorically, he personates the subject; began, 
the predicate of the subject personated by he; early, adjunct of began; 
in, the relator of the subsequent, morning, to its antecedent, began; 
the, an adjunct of morning ; rooming, second object of began, to which 
it is related by in. 

Grammatical Analysis. Early is an adverb of time, belonging to the 
affirmer, began ; it is in the positive degree ; and is compared ; Positive, 
EARLY (Here I); Comparative, 'EKEU'ER; Superlative, :earliest. 

Note L In the morning may be parsed as an Adverbial phrase, or 
each word may be parsed separately. 

2. They^^ laughed**, (while® you" were'* speaking' seri- 
ously').'^^- 

Parsing. While you, etc., is a clause adverb, or an adverbial clause, 
of time ; belonging to the af&rmer, laughed. It is not compared. 



AKALTSES OF THE ADVERB. 



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PKEPO^TIONS — DEFINITIONS. 3 65 



Prepositions. 

330. The science of the Preposition includes, first^ 

the Definitions ; second^ the Classification ; third^ the 

Syntax of the Preposition. 

The word, preposition,'^ means 
that which has been placed le- 

331. i^iV^^j^Ae Definitions. X fore, 

A Preposition is a word^ 
which, in a sentence, has the use or office of a relator. 

Note I. Preposition is an unscientific or a barbarous term. It might, 
with equal propriety, be applied to other grammatical classes ; as, to 
adjuncts whose relation is shown by position, etc. Students may be 
allowed to use the term, Eelator, in its stead. 

Examples. 

1. In the same year, Hudson's ship, the Half-Moon, was 

also sent to the Hudson River on a hke errand hy the company. 

Parsing. In- is a preposition. It is a preposition, because, in this 
sentence, it has the use or office of a relator. Its subsequent term is 
the second object noun, year ; its antecedent, the verb, was sent. 

2. The affairs of the States are the States' affairs. 

Parsing. Of is a preposition ; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of a relator; its subsequent term is the adjunct noun, 
states; its antecedent term is the subject noun, affairs. 

3. A sailor relates the narratives of his voyages. 

4. The study of language relates to all our other studies. 

5. Send the boys to get the bushes, and leave us, girls, to 
arrange the flowers. 

Parsing. To is a preposition ; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of a relator ; its subsequenjvterm is the verb, get; its ante- 
cedent term, the subject noun, girls. 

333. Second^ the Classification. Prepositions, 
according to their use^ are divided into three classes, 
known as ; the First, Second, and Third Classes. 

1 Peepjsition. iiion^ ; poa^pon^ put, placed; pr6=pra6, before. 



366 THE GKAMMAR OF LAlSTGUAaE. 

333. A Preposition of the First Class shows the relation 
of a second object to a verh. These Prepositions are found in 
every language. 

Examples. 

1. This building was erected hy its founder on that verj 
spot. 

Grammatical Analysis. By is a Preposition of the first class ; 
because, it shows the relation of the second object noun, founder ^ to its 
antecedent verb, erected. 

Note II. In nearly all languages, the only use of Prepositions is 
to show the relation of a subsequent second object noun to its antece- 
dent verb. 

2. He journejed afoot. He journeyed on foot. 

3. He journeyed on in danger and alone. He journeyed 
forward in danger and alone. He continued his journey in 
danger and alone. 

4. Tell us the storj of Jack, the Giant Killer. Tell [to] us 
the story of Jack, the Giant Killer. 

5. The man, in the moon, must have been made of moon- 
shine. 

Parsing. Of is a Preposition of the first class ; because, it shows 
the relation of the second object noun, moonshine^ to its antecedent 
verb, must have been made. 

6. Asa paid — William the monej. Asa paid the money 
to "William. 

7. The enemy slew the people with the sword. The peo- 
ple were slain with the sword by the enemy. 

8. The people were slain hy the sword. 

Parsing. By is a preposition; because, it shows the relation of 
sword to were slain. Sword the instrument with which the act was 
done, is taken for enemy ^ the actor ; hence, hy is used instead of with^ 

See Relators. 

334. A Preposition of the Second Class shows the rela- 
tion of an adjunct noun to its principal word, which is either a 
noun or an adjective. 

9. The den of a thief is a thief's den. 



THIRD CLASS OF PREPOSITIONS. 367 

Parsing. Of is a Preposition of the second class ; because, it shows 
^e relation of the adjunct noun, thief, to its principal word, which is 
the noun, den. 

10. A man, too fond of wealth, is in danger of doing dis- 
honest things. 

The first of is a Preposition of the second class ; because, it shows 
the relation of the adjunct noun, wealth, to its principal or antecedent, 
which is the adjective, fond. 

The second of shows the relation of the adjunct clause, doing dis- 
honest things, to its antecedent, which is the noun, danger. 

Note III. The word, of, is probably the only one which can really be 
used to name the relation of an adjunct noun to its principal noun. 
Other words may appear to be so used, while, in reality, they are not. 
Thus;— 

11. The man, in the moon, must have been made of moon- 
shine. 

In this example, m appears to show the relation of moon to man ; 
bujb, in reality, it is the result of a contraction of the sentence, the man, 
who lives in the moon, etc. 

12. In the beginning, the earth was without form. 

13. The horse ran along the road, through the woods, into 
the field. 

14. Tell us the story of Jack, the Giant Killer. 

15. Sing a stanza of "Short Speech Suffices." 

335. A Preposition of the Third Class shows the relation 
of a verb to its own subject noun. This Class of Prepositions 
is found in very few languages. 

16. Teach me to feel another's woe. 

Parsing. To is a Preposition of the third class ; because, it shows 
the relation of the verb, feel, which is in the infinitive mode, to its own 
subject, personated by me. 

Note IY. To is the only word which is used to show the relation 
of a verb to its own subject noun ; hence, when to is so used, it is 
called the sign of the infinitive mode, After several verbs, such as, 
lid, feel, hear, see, let, etc., the Preposition, to, or the sign of the infini- 
tive mode, may be understood. 

17. He bade me feel another's woe. 

18. I felt the ground shake under me. 



368 THE GRAMMAR OF LAKGUAGE. 

Note Y. A Relator and its subsequent term are called a PrejposiUonal 
Phrase or an Adverbial Phrase. 

19. In what place is my hat? Where is my hat? In this 
jplace is your hat. Here is your hat. In that place is your 
hat. There is your hat. 

Note YI. The subsequent term of a Preposition may be under- 
stood; as, — 

20. The persons within the church were much disturbed 
by the persons without [the church]. 

Note YII. The Preposition should always precede its subsequent 
term; as, — 

21. Heaven hides the book of fate /rom all creatures. 

22. Heaven, /rom all creatures, hides the book of fate. 

23. From all creatures, heaven hides the book of fate. 

24. To whom did you give the book ? 
Incorrect. "Whom did you give the book to f 

25. About whom are you talking ? 

Common Error. Whom are you talking about? Who are you 
talking about ? 

Note YIII. A Preposition and its subsequent noun and its adjuncts 
are frequently contracted to a single word, 

26. They fled in haste. They fled hastily. They fled in 
eager haste. They fled eagerly. 

Note IX. Sometimes two Prepositions are used together ; in this 
case, supply the omitted part ; or, if this be inconvenient, take them 
together, as a Compound Preposition ; as, — 

2 7. The place is over leyond Jordan. 
Omit the word, over. 

28. He hath also set the one over against the other. 

29. Heaven from above smiles on the scene. 

That is, Heaven from the sky above us smiles on the scene. 

Note X. At is used to show the relation of home, places of resort, 
and smaller towns ; as,— 

30. I board with my parents at home ; last year I was at 
the Springs ; before that I was at Washingtonville. 



' ERRONEOUS USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 869 

Note XI. Aotion, or state in regard to three or more, is expressed 
by among ^ amongst^ amid, amidst; in regard to two, by between and 
betwixt; as, — 

31. Amid those forest shades, that proudly reared 
Their unshorn beauties toward the fav'ring skies, 
An axe rang sharply. 

32. Betwixt me and thee let there be no strife. 

Note XII. Action, or state continuing through a certain time, is ex- 
pi^ssed by during ; continuing only a part of the time mentioned, by 
in, or within ; as, — 

33. The bells were rung during the whole time of the fire. 

34. During yesterday ten vessels came into port, which is 
more than the number within the twenty days preceding that 
time ; another is expected in the night, or at an early hour 
in the morning. 

Note XIII. Sometimes a word, generally used as a Preposition, is 
improperly used with a verb which has no second object, either ex- 
pressed or understood. These words are not Prepositions, because 
they have no subsequent terms ; nor are they adverbs. Some gram- 
marians propose to call them Prepositional Adverbs or Adverbial FrepO' 
sitions. They should be called errors. Narrators should avoid the use 
of them, should shun them, m the construction of a sentence ; while, 
the narratee should correct the sentence before analyzing it. 

35. Such specimens as- ^hese are often met with. Error, 

36. The copy was carefully read over. Error. 

Note XIY. Whenever one of these "mean little words" is used 
at the end of a sentence, one error can, and three errors may be found ; 
namely, the first, a logical ; the second, a rhetorical ; and the third, a 
grammatical error. 

37. These conditions were insisted on. 

This is illogical ; on should show the relation between conditions and 
insisted. The attempt is made to use conditions as a subject, which can 
not be done, because it names neither an actor nor a receiver. 

38. You saw him, whom I gave it to. 
You saw him, to whom I gave it. 

39. Who were provided /or by this arrangement. 

16* 



370 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

In this example, we find three kinds of errors. First It is ill 
Who belongs to the act, and hence, can not be made a subject, without 
altering the statement. 

Second. It is not rhetorical. The relator should precede who. 

Third. It is ungrammatical. Who is the subsequent of for, and 
hence, should be whom. 

Study carefuUy the following examples. They contain very common 
and yet very gross errors, and should be condemned as much for their 
awkwardness, as for being iUogical. 

40. " In the consideration of this subject, the fact mnst not 
be lost sight o/." 

41. " This course should be insisted o?z." 

42. " Certain studies must be gone through with^ before 
certain other studies are entered upony 

Note XY. A few instances occur, in which the second term of a. 
comparison is put in the objective instead of the nominative case. In 
these cases, some grammarians caU the connector, than^ a Preposition. 
equivalent to except For the correction of this error, see Adjectives 
and Adverbs, Comparative Degree. 

43. Than whom, none higher sat. Than he, none higher 
sat. None sat higher than he sat. 

The use of ivhom instead of who must be regarded as a poetic hcense^, 
or grammatical error, made for the sake of euphony. 

44. Temperance and exercise preserve the health,, both of 
the body and the mind. 

Note XYI. When a Connective is followed by a contracted clause^, 
care must be taken not to obscure the sense by omitting a preposition, 
which should be expressed ; thus, ex., 44, should be^ and of the mind. 

45. The team passed through the j^ard and the gardem 
The team passed through the yard and through the garden. 

46. Over the river and over the lake, over the tall grass' 
and over the brake, away we hie in our cloud-swept car. 

Note XYII. A Preposition must not be used between a first ob 
ject noun and its verb ; since, the relation of a first object noun to its 



ANALYSES OF THE PREPOSITION. 371 

verb must be shown either by the meaning of the noun, or by its posi- 
tion, or by both of these means. 

47. While I was reading of it over I discovered my mis- 
take. While I was reading it I discovered my mistake. 

48. He was fond of reading of the history of the war. 

49. Should a school building be surrounded with a fence ? 

50. The place was over beyond Jordan. The place was 
beyond Jordan. 

Note XYIII. A Connective must not be used in thd place of the 
Preposition, to, as the sign of the Infinitive Mode, 

51. We will try to do it. We will try to avoid it 
We will try and do it. We will try and avoid it. 



TlfiA Byrdax of the Preposition, 

3JJ6. Thirds the Syntax of the Preposition. 

337. Rule L A Preposition^ must precede its subsequent 

term. 

338. BuLE IL In the English^ the preposition^ by, must 
he used to show the relation of a second object, which names the 
actor or first priTnary idea. 

Analyses of the Preposition. 

1. ik* the* morning/ the® bands* of* sleep® are'' broken'; 
m* the* evening^, we''^ surrender^ (ourselves''* to^ be' bound' 
hy' them^).'''^- 

General Analysis, In the morning, etc., is, logically, a compound 
connected thought in the third degree ; its first immediate element is 
the simple thought, the lands of sleep are broken; its second, is the com- 
plex thought, in the evening^ we surrender, etc. These parts are joined 
by the idea of connection (but) not expressed. In the evening, etc.. has, 
for its first elemerit, the independent thought, in the evening^ we sur* 
render, and the dependent thought, ourselves to he bound by them. 



872 THE GRAMMAR OF LA:^TGUAGK 

Rhetorically, in the morning^ etc., is a connected compound sentence, 
of two clauses, joined by a connector, understood. Its first clause is 
the simple sentence, in the morning, the hands of sleep are broken; its 
second clause is the mixed sentence, in the evening^ etc. 

Special Anojlysis. The principal words of the first clause are. handSj 
are Iroken ; of the second clause, ive, surrender {ourselves to be hound by 
them), oityselves, be bound. 

Grrammaticcd Analysis. In is a Preposition, showing the relation 
of the second object, morning, to the predicate, are broken. In is here 
used according to the First Use of Prepositions. 

Parsing. Of is a Preposition, showing the relation of the adjunct 
sleep, to the subject, bands. Of is here used according to the Second 
Use of Prepositions. 

To is a Preposition, sho^ving the relation of the afiirmer, be bound, 
to the subject personated by ourselves. To is here used according to 
the Third Use of Prepositions. 

By is a preposition, showing the relation of its subsequent name 
of the actors personated by' z^/ze?7i, to its antecedent, the predicate, 6^ 
bound. By is here used according to its Special Use. 



ANALYSES OF THE PKEFOSITIOJS". 373 



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374 



THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



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CONJUNCTIONS. 375 

Conjimctions. 

339. The science of the Conjunction includes ; firsi^ 
the Definitions ; second^ the Classification ; and third^ the 
Syntax of the Conjunction. 

{The word, conjunction^^ 
means the science and art 
of that which joins. 
A Conjunction is a 
wordy lohich, in a sentence^ has the use or office of a connector. 

Note I. Conjunctions are sometimes called Connectives. 

Examples. 

1. Every man's cause is just in Ms own eyes; lut^ pres- 
ently his neighbor cometh, and he searcheth him. 

Parsing. But is a Conjunction ; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of a connector. 

2. The Lord of Hosts is mightier than thou [art]. 

3. He will depart as soon as the conveyance can be made 
ready. 

Note II. A few examples occur, in which, Conjunctions seem to 
connect words only, but even these may be resolved into contracted 
sentences ; so that the Conjunction joins sentences only. 

4. The Eastern Continent is divided into three parts ; 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, The Eastern Continent is di- 
vided into three parts, of which parts the first part is Europe, 
and the second part is Asia, and the third part is Africa, 

5. Two and three are five. Two added to three are ^yo. 

341. ySfeco?2c?, ^Ae Classification. Conjunctions, ac- 
cording to the comparative degree of the clauses which they 
join., are divided into two kinds ; namely, Coordinate^ 
and Svhordinate. 

* Conjunction. Uon^ ; junc^^jug^ yokes, joins; con^ with an other, to- 
gether. 



376 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

34:2. A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one which joins one 
clause to another of the same degree, 

Note III. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are sometimes called Extending 
Conjunctions, 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The king has houses, and lands, and great riches. 

Grammatical Analysis. And is a Co-ordinate or Extending Con- 
junction ; because, it joins clauses of the same degree. 

2. Will you ride to-day, or, will you walk to-day ? Will 
you ride or walk to-day? 

3. He came hut he did not stay long. 

4. He went in haste, because he was anxious to see his 
friend. 

343. A Subordinate Conjunction is one which joins a co- 
ordinate Clause to a verh^ to an adjective^ or to an oAverh of a 
clause having a higher degree. 

Note IY. Subordinate Conjunctions are sometimes called Limiting 
Conjunctions. 

5. You cannot go, unless your teachers permit you. 

Parsing. Unless {?> o. subordinate or limiting Conjunction; because, 
it joins the subordinate clause, your teachers permit you^ to the verb, 
can go, of the higher clause, you cannot go. 

6. You will take cold, if you get in that draught. 

7. He waited until I came home. 

Note Y. "When a Conjunction joins a subordinate clause to an ad- 
jective, the adjective and the Conjunction are used Correlatively. When 
the Conjunction joins a subordinate clause to an adverb, the adverb and 
the Conjunction are used Correlatively. 

8. He gave more attention than you gave. 

Parsing. Than is a subordinate Conjunction used correlatively witli 
more ; because, by the antecedent adjective, more, we know that the 
second term of comparison must follow, and that the clause, expressing 
this second term, must be joined to the adjective, ?7zo?'e, by the sub- 
ordinate Conjunction, tha'/i. 

9. To-day we will study more diligently than we did yes- 
terday. 



THE SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTIOK. 377 

10. "We dismounted, as quickly as we could, and concealed 
oti^rselves in the bushes. 

Parsing. As (as we could) is a subordinate Conjunction, used correloj- 
tively with the adverb, as ; because, it connects the subordinate clause, 
we could [dismount], to as [quickly], an adverb in another clause of a 
higher degree. 

11. No sorrow is so great that it can not be assuaged by 
time. 

12. I will teach this subject as well as I can. 
Note YI. Sometimes Conjunctions are used Inceptively. 

13. That he neither writes nor reads is very surprising. 

14. For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. 

15. That mind is not matter, is certain. 

Note YII. Sometimes, Conjunctions seem to connect words in 
apposition. This is due, probably, to a contraction. 

16. On this occasion, Mr. Smith officiated as chairman. 

17. On this occasion Mr. Smith officiated as a chairman 
officiates. 

18. He acts as if he owned the whole city. He acts as 
he would act, if he owned the whole city. 

19. I have as much money, as I need. I have as much 
money, as the money is, which money I need. 

The Syntax of the Conjunction. 

344. Thirdj the Syntax of the Conjunction, 

34:S. Rule I. The Conjunction must precede its sulse- 
quent clause. 

Examples. 

1. I will heed not your words, because ye have not heeded 
mine. Because ye have heeded not my words, I will heed 
not yours. 

346. Rule II. When two or more clauses, joined ly co- 
ordinate Conjunctions, are contracted in their verhs, the Conjunc- 
tion must he expressed before the last clause. 



878 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

jLnalyses of the Coitj unction. 

1. Gloiy be to Thy name, as it was in the beginning, is 
now, and ever shall be. Glory be unto Thy name, as it was 
in the beginning, and glory be to Thy name, as it is now, and 
glor}^ be to Thy name, as it ever shall be. 

General Analysis. Logically, as is a subordinate idea of connec- 
tion between the simple thoughts, glory he to Thy name, it was in the 
heguming ; rhetorically, o^ is a subordinate connector, joining the sub- 
ordinate clause, it was in the beginning, co the predicate, be, of the prin- 
cipal clause, glory be to Thy name; therefore, grammatically, o^ is a 
Conjuncuon, used simply. 

Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. As is a subordinate Conjunction, 
used simply. It precedes its clause, it was in the beginning, according 
to Eule L 

General Analysis. And, logically, is the co-ordinate idea of connec- 
tion between the two compound thoughts, glory be to Thy name, as it 
was in the beginning ; glory be to Ttty name, as it is now ; rhetorically, 
and. is a co-ordinate connector, joining two compound clauses of the 
same degree ; therefore, grammatically, and is a co-ordinate Con- 
junction. 

Grararnatical Analysis or Parsing. And is a co-ordinate Conjunc- 
tion. It precedes the clause which it connects, etc. 

2. As is the boy, so is the man. Such ' is the man, as is 
the boy. 

General Analysis. Logically, 05 is a subordinate idea of connection 
between the subordinate thought, is the boy, and the subordinate idea, 
so, such, in the principal thoughts, so is the man, such is the man ; rhet- 
oricaUy, (W is a subordinate connector, joining the subordinate clause, 
is the boy, to the adjuncts, so, such, in the principal clauses, so is the 
man, such is the man; therefore, grammatically, as is a. subordinate 
Conjun:;tion, used correlatively with the adjectives, 50, such. 



ANALYSES OF THE CONJUNCTIOJST. 



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380 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



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EXCLAMATIONS. 381 



Exclamations. 

347. The science of the Exclamation includes ; firstj 
the DefiniticTns ; second^ the ClassijQcation ; thirds the 
Syntax of the Exclamation. 

iThe word. Exclamation^^ 
means that which cries out. 
An Exclamation is a 
word^ a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, which, in a sentence^ is 
used to express some feeling or emotion of the speaker. 

Examples. 

1. Rudely I seized it. Too rudely; alas ! 

Parsing. Alas ! is a word exclamation ; because, it is used to express 
an emotion of the narrator. 

2. Hail, Columbia, Happy land! 

Parsing. Happy land ! is a phrase Exclamation ; because, etc. 

3. *' Heaven save your Majesty !" '^ God bless the Queen I" 
frequently repeated, when Victoria appears in public. 

Parsing^ Heaven save your Majesty ! is a clause Exclamation ; be- 
cause, etc. 

4. Here, land of cakes, and brother Scots ; from Maiden 
Kirk to Johnnie Groat's. 

Parsing. Here, land of cakes^ etc., is a sentence Exclamation ; be- 
cause, etc. 

Note I. An Exclamation, which occurs between the parts of a 
sentence, is sometimes called an Interjection.'^ 

Note II. An Exclamation, which does not express a distinct idea, 
is sometimes called an Ejaculation.^ 

5. Oh! Oh! So you have come at last. 

* Exclamation, ^ee Exelamative. 

8 Interjection, tion^ ; jec, ; inter ^ between, among. 

^ Ejaculation, ation^ ; vZ^ some, little; joAi^^jec^ ■ ; «— =ea5, out. 



382 THE GEAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

l^OTE III. As Interjections, the word, OA, is used alone or by itself ^ 
as, Oh ! Ah ! Alas I ; while, the word, 0, is used as if an adjunct of 
some word or phrase ; Thou Eternal One I 

349. Second^ the Glassificatiok Bxclaination& 
are divided inXo four kinds ; namely, Exclamaiive Words^ 
Exclamative Phrases^ Exclamative Clauses^ and Exclama- 
tive Sentences. 

6. Exdamative Words. ^^GoodT say yon? ^^GoodP^ 
say I; " Good F^ says every one. 

7. Exclamative Phrases. Ha, ha, ha ; he, he, he. A good 
joke 1 A capital joke I 

8. Exclamative Clauses. Hark ! they whisper, angels say^ 
^*' Sister Spirit ! come away T^ 

9. Halloo, here I Is any body awake within ? 

10. Whoa, boys! Steady, boys! Gently now, gently! 

1 1 . If they shall say, Lo, here ! or, Lo, there ! 

12. Ha, ha, ha; he, he, he, A good joke ! Capital, cap- 
ital 1 

13. 'Twas strange! 'Twas passing strange! 'Twas piti- 
ful ! 'Twas wondrous pitiful I 

14. Exclamative Sentences. Lives there a heart with soul sa 
dead, that never to itself hath said, '' This is my c^n, my 
native land!" 

15. "Shall mortal man be more just than God!" 

16. My friends, our country must be free ! 

17. The land is never lost that has a son to right her, and 
here are troops of sons and loyal sons ! 

18. Alas ! my noble boy! that thou shouldst die. 

19. Gently! gently! Do not awake the monster I 

20. I am coming ! I am coming ! 
Hark ! the little bee is humming ; 
See ! the lark is soaring high 

In the bright and sunny sky, 
And the gnats are on the wing ; 
Little maiden, now is Spring I 



SYNTAX OF THE EXCLAMATION. 383 

21. Thou lovely and glorious Spring, 

Descending to us from the sky, 
I praise thee for coming to bring 
Such beautiful things to my eye I 

22. Fill it up I Ashes to ashes, and dust to dust. 

23. Oh, sweet the jessamine's buds of snow, 

In mornings soft with May I 
Oh, silver clear the waves that flow. 
Reflecting heaven, away ! 

24. Is the enemy marching to battle ! Rise ! Rise I 
For the foe is near ! Stay not to sharpen your 
Weapons, or the town will strike at last, 
"When, from dreams of coming battle, you may 

Wake to find it past I 

25. Get thee back, Sorrow ! Get thee back ! 

26. "Nay," he shouted, " Our country forever I" 

27. When he died, he was praying for you ! 

28. Forward, the Light Brigade ! Oliarge for the guns ! 

29. My blood grows chilly, and I freeze with horror I 

30. By heaven ! cried Francis, rightly done I 

31. The voice of prayer in the world of bliss ! 

32. Behold how good a thing it is. 

And how becoming well, 
Together such as brethren are 
In unity to dwell I 

Syntax of the Exclamation. 
350. Thirds the Syntax of the Exclamation. = 

331. Rule I. An Exclamation, possessing high passioji 

or emotion, must he placed at the heginning of the expression 

in which it is used. 

33. ^' Revenge I Revenge I Yictory, or Death !" fiercely 
shouted the men. 

353. Rule II. An exclamation, expressing a lower 
passion or emotion, may appear in any part of the expression 
h which it belongs. 



384 THE GRA]\i:\IAR OF LANGUAGE. 

34. The people shouted, Hurrah, for our President ! 

■Exce]3tion.—T\iQ Exclamation may appear in any part of 
the expression. 

35. He woke to hear his sentry's shriek. 

To arms 1 They come ! The Greek 1 The Greek! 

Aiialysis of the Exclamation. 

1. Humph ! I do not understand you. 

General Analysis. Humph ! is language expressing a feeling of 
disdain. It is simply an ejaculation ; because, it does not express an 
ideal. 

2. He will be here to-day ! did you say ? 

General Analysis. He will he here to-day!^ logically, is a simple 
tliought. used as the receiver of the action, say ; rhetorically, it is a 
first object exclamative clause : therefore, grammatically, it is an Ex- 
clamative clause noun. Neuter , third . singular , ob- 
jective esse. 

As a sentence, its immediate elements are : he. personator of the 
subject; ioill be, predicate; here, to-day. adjuncts of the predicate. 

The sentence may now be parsed according to the following notation. 

3. He'^ will be'p^ here' to-day^ 

Note IY. The Exclamation is usually analyzed by simply stating 
the kind of emotion, etc., which it expresses ; but, if a verb, or other 
part of speech be used, it should be classified according to the preceding 
principles. 



ANALYSES OF THE EXCLAMATIOK 



385 



L- d 



s § a 

^ Ai P^ 





^ S s 1 


\i 


' -. oS 


2 


^ " 


&H 




<1 


03 1 


3 


i ^ ' 


H-3 

Q 
W 




H 


^ 


W 


§ 


H 


o 






O 


p 


03 




f^ 




CQ 




tH 




^ 




$; 




-< 





^ fi 



^ -3 















■g 


a 


g 


1 




&< 


•H 




U 

^ 


i 


§ 


s 


s 


g 


,4 






•1-1 


PM 


W 


s 


o 


El 




1 






1^ 


c5 








hq 


F^ 








1 


1 




1 


n; 








H 


Hi 

1 




i4 










5 


■♦* 




;^ 










§ 


M« 





i1 



386 CLASSIFICATION BY USE. 



Grammatical Classification. 

S5SeTHE same word may be used in several different 
offices ; but its classification must, in every instance, 
depend on its use. 

This proposition is a repetition of what has already been stated ; but 
■ its importance seems to justify us in calling special attention to it; the 
more so, because our elementary works on language contain so many 
expressions directly calculated to beget the idea, that certain words are, 
in themselves, certain parts of speech. So far, we have endeavored not 
only to avoid such expressions, but to guard the learner against the in- 
ception of an idea so erroneous. To enforce the importance of classi- 
fying each word according to its use, the following familiar sentences 
are given. 

1. Painters paint buildings with paint, which they carry in 
paint-pots, and apply with paint-brushes. 

2. The dock-masters dock the wages of the laborers, who 
come to work on the dock after a certain time. 

3. Mr. Wells informs me, that all the wells in hi& vicinity 
are well filled with water; and that all his friends are well. 

4. In the last example, with is a preposition ; what is it 
in this example ? 

5. Did you find with in the list of prepositions ? 

6. But is often used as a conjunction ; what is it here ? 

7. I, thou, he, she, and it are often used as pronouns. 

8. Do not thee and thou me ; I am no friend of thine. 

9. Parse did find in the analysis given above, and also 
ji- it is used here. 

10. In the last example, here is an adverb. 

11. In the tenth example, adverb is a common noun. 

12 '' And " is a Copulative Conjunction. ''Are" is an 
irregular intransitive simple Yerb. " " is an Exclamation. 
" I " is not a Pronoun in this sentence. 



SECONDARY CLAUSES. obi 

13. The woman said, that that that, that that man 
parsed, was not that that, that that lady asked him to parse. 

14. In the last example, him is a simple pronoun ; what is 
it in this, and what is its case ? 

15. Henry leaves the leaves of his fruit-trees lying in the 
walk. 

16. Henry, in the last example, is a proper noun ; what is 
it in this ? 

17. What a queer thing parsing is ! If I call with a prepo- 
sition, I make it a noun ; if I call it a pronoun, it becomes a 
common noun ; if I say, '' them is a pronoun, third, plural, 
and objective," I make them sl common noun, neuter, third, 
singular, and in the nominative ! 



Terms commonly used. 

354:. The Secondary Clauses of Compound Sentences 
are sometimes named according to the grammatical 
character of the words, by which the relations of these 
Secondary clauses are shown. 

First. The Vocative Clause, which is introduced by the name of the 
person, or object addressed. 

1. "0, Genius of Art ^ fill us with the inspiration of a still 
higher, and a more spiritual beauty !" 

Second. The Appositional Clause, which contains a noun in apposi- 
tion with a noun in the other clause. 

2. Pythagoras, an ancient philosopher, made many dis- 
coveries in geometry and astronomy. 

3. He was employed as Secretary of the Board of Trade, 

Third. The Casual Clause, which tells the cause, or object, for 
which an action is done. 

4. Congress assembled to devise the means for raising a 
revenue. 

Fourth. The Participial Clause, which is introduced by a participle, 

5. The Russians, discovering our approoxh, fled hastily. 



388 PHRASES. 

6. She, loved hy all, loved all in return. 

Fifth. The Hypothetical, or Subjunctive Clause, which is mtroduced 
by a Limiting Connective, and hence, is in the Subjunctive. 

7. If I he Hodge, I have lost a horse ; but, if I he not 
Hodge, I have found a good halter. 

8. When Spring comes, the trees take their clothing from 
their trunks. 

Sixth. The Relative Clause, which is introduced by a designating 
adjectiye, used relatively. 

9. This is an occasion, which is long to he rememhered hy 

all now "present, 

3. Phrases are divided and named according to the 
words, by which their Logical and Rhetorical Charac- 
ters are shown. 

EiRST. The Prepositional Phrase, which includes the preposition, and 
its second object. 

1. The vine hangs on the tree, which is in the garden. 

2. The next instant, all ^Yas hushed. 

o. Some love labor; others, on the contrary, abhor it. 

4. The planet, Yenus, may be known hy its hrightness, and 
hy its locality. 

5. On the other hand, this proposal did not suit both 
parties. 

Second. The Adverbial Phrase, which is introduced by an adverbc 

6. The skies were transparently Hue. 

7. They live away over the hills, 

8. We were at the place punctually. 

a. Sometimes these are parsed as Adverbial Phrases. When the stu- 
dent is familiar with the use of each word in the Phrase, this manner of 
disposing of these constructions will answer very well. 

Third. The Adjective Phrase, which is introduced by an adjective. 
9. Conscious of rectitude^ he maintains his principles. 



ORTHOEPY. 889 



ORTHOEPY AND OETHOGRAPHY. 

356. The Second Part of Grammar includes the 
kindred subjects, Orthoepy^ and Ortfwgraphy. 

Orthoepy. 

Lit. Def. The word, orthoepy ^'^ means correct speaking or pronun- 
ciation. 

357. The fer7)i, Orthoepy, is applied to the science and art 
of speaking or pronouncing words correctly. 

Note I. English Orthoepy inchides those sounds which are used 
in speaking or pronouncing Enghsh words. It does not include those 
sounds which, in speaking or in reading, form a part of Mood Language. 
Note II. Orthoepy includes the correct speaking or pronunciation 
of words only ; while, Eeading or Elocution includes the correct read- 
ing and speaking of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, chapters, etc. 

358. NoMENCLATUEE. The Names or Terms, used 
in Orthoepy, are Organs of Voice, Organs of Speech^ 
Phonic Elements of Words, Enunciation, Articulation^ 
Phonic Syllable, and Oral Spelling, 

The Organs of Voice, 

Lit. Def. The word, organ,^ means an instrument or apparatus fitted 
for some peculiar purpose. 

330. The Organs of Voice consist of certain muscles, 
cartilages, and their appendages, called the Larynx. They are 
situated in the upper part of the wind-pipe. They are sometimes 
called the Vocal Organs. (/See Physiology.') 

Note III. By the aid of an instrument, called the Laryngyscope, or 
" Yiewer of the Larynx," the Yocal Organs and their uses are much 
better understood now than heretofore. In consequence of its dis- 

1 Okthoepy. y=e, belonging to; (o)ep^ speech; orth, correct, true, right. Seo 
orthodox, etc. 

2 Organ. The origin of this word is obscure. It may be from; (a)?i, ones' 
units ; org = ord, rank, arranged. 



890 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

closures, several former theories in regard to sounds have been found 
to be erroneous ; hence, new and better ones have lately been substi- 
tuted. 

The Organs of Speech. 

S60. The Organs of Speech are the lips^ teeth, tongue, 
palate, and nasal ducts. (See Physiology.) 

^©1. The Organs of Speech are the Lips or the 

Labiar Organs, the Teeth or the DentaV' Organs, the 

Tongue or the LinguaT Organ, the Palate or the Guttural^ 

Organ, and the NasaV" Duds^., or the Nasal Organs. 

(See Physiology.) 

Note IY. Many of the brutes, in common with mankind, have Or- 
gans of Voice ; while, none of them have complete Organs of Speech. 
Hence mankind is distinguished from brutekind rather by the gift or 
power of Speech than by the gift or power of Voice. 

363. The Organs of Voice and of Speech are used 
to change the air, passing over them from the lungs^ 
into sounds, and, also, to modify these sounds. 

Phonic Elements of Words. 
Lit. Def. The word, phonic,'^ means belonging to noise or sounds. 

363. The Phonic Elements of Words are the sounds or 
tones produced hy breath, from the lungs, passing across the 
organs of voice and of speech, 

364. The Phonic Elements of English words are 
abon.t forty in number ; that is, all the words of the 
English language may be spoken by the use of about 
forty different Sounds or Tones. 

Note V. Some authors give thirty-nine, some forty, some forty- 
one, and some more, as the Elementary Sounds of the English language. 

1 Labial. {i)al, ; ?rt5, lip. See laugh. 

2 Dental. aZ, ; de7it, tooth. 

8 Lingual, al, ; linc/u = langu, tongne, 

4 GuTTUEAL. al, ; guttur. throat. 

* Nasal, al, ; nas. nose. 

® Duct, t, ; due, guide, lead. x--^/«— s 

'J' Phonic, -io, belonging to; phon-='Son (sonorous) = i^OTi (tone), sowti, voice. 

Bound, noise. 



ORTHOEPY. 891 

^0T£: YI. Languages differ in the number of their Phonic Elements. 
The greater portion of these Elements is the same in all languages, and 
the differences exist in the few Elements which are used in one lan- 
guage and are not used in the other languages ; as, the English th^ not 
found in the Erench, or German. 

Env/nciation. 
Lit. Def. The word, enunciation^^ means speaking out 

36S. Enunciation is a term applied to that part of 
Orthoepy which includes the proper production and utterance of 
sound. 

Articulation. 

Lit. Def. The word, articulation,'^ means little joints. 

36G. Articulation is a term applied to that part of Or- 
thoepy which includes the proper joining of sounds. 

Note VIL The terms, Enunciation, Articulation, are not synony- 
mous. Sounds may be improperly enunciated, and yet be properly 
articulated ; on the other hand, they may be properly enunciated, while 
they are improperly articulated. 

Phonic Syllables. 
Lit. Def. The word, syllable,^ means lipped or flowing together. 

367. -A Phonic Syllable is one or more phonic elements 
uttered hy a single impulse of the voice, and used as an immediate 
element in the formation of words. 

Oral Spelling. 

Lit. Def. The word, oral.;^ means belonging to the mouth. 
The word, spelling,^ means the action of speaking little [things.] 

36S. Oral Spelling, properly consists in giving the 
phonic elements of a word. This term is also applied to the act 
of naming the letters of a word. (See Chap. III., Words.) 

'' y 

1 Enunciation. (i)ation, ; nunc = noun<i, speak, tell : e = ea?, out. 

2 Articulation, ation, ; {i)Gul, little, some; oW. joint, hinge. — 

3 Syllable, le, havins: the property of; lab =^lap = lav, flowing, spoken, 
lipped; si/l = syn, together. See Diet., labial^ lapse, liquid, etc. 

4 OnAL. al, belonging to; or= os, the mouth. 
6 Spelling. (J)ing, ; spel, mutters. 



S92 THE GKAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

369. Classifications. The Phonic Elements of 
words may be classified in five ways ; first^ according to 
the organs hy which they are made and modified ; second^ 
according to quantity^ or rhythm; third^ according to 
pitch or hey ; fourth^ according to force or dynamics ; 
and fifth^ according to quality. 

3^0. According to the organs hy which they are made 
and modified^ Phonic Elements of words are divided 
into three classes; Vocals^ Sub-vocals^ and Ah-vocals or 
Speech Elements. 

371. Vocal Sounds are those which are made and modi- 
fied hg the organs of voice only. 

Note YIII. Two Yocals combined are caUed a double-vocal, a 
Diphthong or Dyphonic, 

Note IX. The second of two Yocals, coming together, is said to 
be a Pure Yocal or is said to have its Pure Sound. 

STS. Sub-Vocal Sounds are those which are made hy the 
organs of voice and modified hy the organs of speech. They are 
sometimes called Consonants.'^ 

373. Sub-vocal Sounds, according to the organs of 
speech hy which they are modified^ are divided into six 
kinds ; namely, Lahia\ Lahio-Dental^ Dental^ Lingual^ 
Palatal or Guttural^ and Nasal. 

3*74:. Labial Sounds are sounds modified hy the lips; 
Labio-Dental, those modified hy the lower lip and the upper 
teeth ; Dental, those modified hy the teeth ; Lingual, those 
modified hy the tongue; Palatal or Guttural, those modi- 
fied hy the throat or palate ; Nasal, those modified hy the nasal 
ducts. 

373. Ab-yocal or Speech Elements are those sounds 
which are made and modified hy the organs of speech only. 

1 Consonants. (a)w;{, having the property of; son == soun ^ ;phon^ ; 

con, . 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 893 

376. According to quantity or rhythm^ Sounds are 
Shor% and Long. 

377. A Short Sound is one produced in the shortest time 
in which that sou7id can he perfectly made, 

378. A Long Sound is one requiring a longer time for its 
production than a short sound. 

Note X. Some describe a Long Sound as having twice the length 
of a Short Sound. It may be less than twice, twice, or more than twice 
the shorter Sound. 

379. According to pitch or hey^ Sounds are Iligh^ 
Low^ and Intermediate. 

380. According to force or dynamics^ Sounds are 
Faint or Weak^ and Strong or Loud, 

381. According to quality^ Sounds are Snriooih. 
Roug\ Pure^ Mixed^ etc. 

Note XI. The remaining portion of the science of Orthoepy corre- 
sponds to certain portions of the science of Orthography ; hence, it will 
be found under the compound term, Orthoepy and Orthography, 

Ortbogxaphy. 

Lit. Def. The word, orthography^^ means correct picture or writing, 

382. The term^ Orthography, is applied to that part of 
grammar which includes the science and art of writing^ or of . 
printing the elements of a loord correctly. 

383. NoMENCLATUEE. The Names or Terms, be- 
longing to Orthography, are Letters^ Alphabet^ Idea- 
graphic^ Phonographic^ Graphic Syllable^ and Literal or 
Graphic Spelling, 

Lit. Def. The word, letter ^^ means sand, grain, 

384:. A Letter is a character^ used as one of the ultimate 
elements of a written^ or of a printed tuord. 

1 Outhogk A.PHY. y=e, ; graph, paint, draw, or delineate ; oriJio, „ 

* liBTTEE. te?\ ; let= Ut, sand, grain. See littoral. 

17* 



894 THE GBAMMAR OF LANGUAGE, 

Note I. The Letters of a word are sometimes called its Literal 
Elements, Tlie term, Letter^ is sometimes expressed by the word, 
grain, a contraction of the Greek word, gramma^ meaning a letter ^ 
hence, our English word, grammar. 

Alphahet 

Lit. Def. The word, alphabet,^ means A, B^ Cs. 

385. The term, Alphabet, ^5 apjjiied to a talle or arrange' 
onient of the letters^ as literal or graphic elements of words. 



ENGLISH. 


LATIN. 


a. 


GREEK. 


A, a 


A, 


a 


A, 


a, Alpha 


B, b 


B, 


b 


B, 


P, Beta 


C, c 


c, 


c 


r, 


y, Gamma 


D, d 


D, 


d 


A, 


6, Delta 


E, e 


E, 


e 


E, 


€, Upsilon 


F, f 


F, 


f 


z, 


^, Zeta 


G, g 


G, 


g 


H, 


rj, Eta 


H, h 


H, 


li 


e, 


'&, 6, Theta 


I, i 


I, 


i 


I, 


t, Iota. 


J> J 


J, 


J 


K, 


K, Kajjpri 


K, k 


K, 


k 


A, 


X, Lambda 


L, 1 


L, 


1 


M, 


ji, Mu 


M, m 


M, 


m 


N, 


V, Nu 


N, n 


N, 


n 


'-*5 


?, ^i 


0, 


0, 





0, 


0, Omlcro 1. 


P, P 


P, 


P 


n, 


TT, Pi 


Q, q 


Q, 


q 


P, 


p, Mho 


E, r 


R, 


r 


2, 


a, g, Sigma 


S, s 


s, 


s 


T, 


r, Tau 


T, t 


T, 


t 


T, 


V, Upsilon 


U, u 


u, 


u 


*, 


6. Phi 


V, V 


V, 


T 


X, 


X, Chi 


"W, w 


x, 


X 


•I-, 


ip, Psi 


X, X 


Y, 


J 


i2, 


G), Omega 


Y, y 


z, 


z 






Z, z 











1 AuPHABET. bet — beta^ Greek name for the letter, JS ; alpha., Greek name for 
the letter, A. See abacus. 



IDEAGRAPHIC. 895 

Note II. The Alphabets of the different languages vary in the 
number of letters which they contain. In the Alphabet of the English 
language there are 26, in the Latin, 25, in the G-reek, French, Italian, 
Spanish, 24, Abyssinian, 202, and the Brahmanic, 240. 

386. Since, in the Englisli Language, there are 
about forty sounds, and only twenty-six letters, some 
letters must represent more than one sound, or else 
some sounds must be represented by a combination of 
these letters, both of which, in practice, are done. 

Note III. A new Alphabet, called the Phonetic Alphabet, is now 
used, in which, the number of letters is equal to the number of sounds 
in the English language. These letters are so simple in their forms, 
that a speech may be written as rapidly by the narratee as it is uttered 
by the speaker, a feat which has never yet been performed by words 
written in the common Alphabet. 

By using the Phonetic Alphabet, also, a speech may be copied and 
then be read by a copyist, who does not know the meaning of a single 
word, used by the speaker. A few years since, in New York City, a 
boy reported a speech in the Russian language, and then read it to the 
gratification of several Russians, while the boy himself did not under- 
stand a single word of the speech. The mastery of this Alphabet and 
its familiar use, cannot be too highly commended to students. 

IdeagrapMc. 

Lit. Def. The word, ideographic^ means "belonging to the picture of 
an idea. 

387. Ideagraphic is a term applied to a picture^ a draw- 
ingy or a delineation^ and to any character or mark^ which ex- 
presses art idea to the sense of sight. 

Thus, in geography, some ideas are expressed by pictures, some by 
drawings or delineations called maps^ charts^ diagrams^ etc. ; some by 
arbitrary characters, as squares, triangles, etc., denoting cities, towns, 
etc., and their populations ; some by lines, or marks to denote boundary 
lines, roads, canals, etc., and some by printed words, or, as they may 
be called for convenience. Graphic words. The Arabic Figures are 
Ideographs. 

Note IY. Several Eastern languages, as the Siamese, Chinese, 
Japanese, etc., are rather Ideagraphic than Phonographic ; hence, it 
happens that, while the Chinese and Japanese read each other's wi'it- 



398 THE GKAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

ings, they can not understand each other's speech ; but this will be 
readily understood by recollecting that the same is true of an English- 
man and a Frenchman in regard to Mathematical signs or characters. 

Plionograpliic, 

388. Phonographic is a term applied to a character used 
as the sign of a sound only. 

Thus, the letters of the English alphabet, when used separately, are 
phonogrojjhs. A, i, and o, when used as words, are both Ideagraphs 
and Phonographs. 

l^OTE Y. The North American Indians used rude pictures to record 
events. They were also used by the ancient Egyptian priests, and 
hence were called " hieroglyphics " or priests' writing. These were 
sometimes used as signs of sounds. It is probable that pictures were 
first used, and that Ideagraphs, and Phonographs or Alphabets are 
modifications of these pictures. (See Gliddon's 20 years in Egypt.) 

3SU. A Graphic Syllable is one or more letters used as an 
immediate element of a word. 

3®®. The Letters, forming a Syllable, are divided 
into two kinds ; namely, Phonic Letters, and ApJionic or 
Silent Letters. 

39 1 . The Phonic Letters of a syllalle are those ivhich ex- 
press sounds, 

S93. The Aphonic or Silent Letters of a syllable are 
those which do not express sounds. 

393. Aphonic or Silent Letters are of two kinds ; 
namely, Quantitative^ and Mute. 

S94L. A Quantitative Silent Letter is a voioel which 
modifies the quantity of another vowel. 

Thus, the letter e, in the words grate^ great, is quantitative ; because, 
it is used to give the long sound to the vowel, a, which is short in the 
word, grat In the words, heat, read, etc., a is the quantitative vowel; 
in the words, gait^ raid, etc., i is the quantitative vowel. 

395. A Mute Silent Letter is one which neither expresses a 
soundj nor a modification of a sound. 



RULES FOR QUANTITY. 397 

Note YI. Originally, these Silent Letters expressed sounds. These 
sounds, in that process of the contraction of words, to which we have 
several times referred, have been dropped in speaking, while they have 
been retained in writing the word. Common sense requires that the 
mute silent letters should be entirely dropped. 

396. The Quantity of a Graphic Syllable is the 
same as that of its vowel element ; hence, in speaking 
and in singing, the vowel so and only should be used 
to lengthen, or to shorten the syllable. 

Rules for the Quantity of Syllables. 

397. General Rule. Assume that the Vowel of every 
syllable is short, and that, when lengthened, it must be in accord- 
ance with the following Special Rules, to which there are many 
exceptions. 

398. Rule I. Digraphs, Trigraphs, etc., and vowels 
affected by quantitative vowels, must be long ; few exceptions. 

As, oi in \)oi\ ; ou in foz^nd ; ea in great ; ea in heat, etc. 
A in hat is short ; a in hate is long ; because, it is affected by the 
quantitative vowel, e ; so e in mete j i in k^te ; o in note ; u iu tiz/.te. 

399. Rule II. A vowel, before a double consoiiant, or 
before tioo, or more consonants, mast be long by its position ; 
many exceptions. 

Literal or Graphic Spelling. 

400. Literal or Graphic Spelling- is spelling by giving 
the letters forming the ultimate elements of a word, and should 
generally be done in writing. 

Note YII. In Oral Spelling, a word should be spelled plioidcally 
or by giving the sounds used in speaking it ; in Written Spelling, a 
word should be spelled literally or by the letters used in writing it. 

The practice of naming the letters, in Oral Spelling, should be sel- 
dom used, and even then, with extreme caution, on account of iX^ 
tendency to hinder the student from acquiring habits of correct pro- 
nunciation. 

401. ClassificatioivT. The Literal Elements of 
words may be classified in four ways ; Jirst^ according 



898 THE GRAMMAE OF LANGUAGE. 

to importance ; second^ according to form ; thirds accord- 
ing to size ; and fourth^ according to sound. 

4®3. According to importance^ Letters are divided 
into Large Capitals^ Small Capitals^ and Small or Body 
Letters, 

Large Caioital Letters. 

Lit. Def. The word, capital,^ means belonging to the head or chief. 

4:03. A Large Capital Letter or a Capital Letter, as 

it is usually called, is of the largest letters of its hind. 

Joules for the Use of Capital Letters. 

404. Rule I. A Ca2oital Letter must he placed at the 
heginning of a word used as an appellation of the Deity, a 
proper noun, a proper adjective, a titular noun, the first word of 
a period, the first word of each line of poetry, and the first word 
of a full quotation. 

Examples. 

1. A. word used as an appellation of the Deity. From all 
creatures, Heaven hides the Book of Fate. Hallowed be 
Thy name. Man should worship that Supreme Being by 
which he has been created. 

2. A propter noun. Henry crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 
the good ship, Neptune. In London, he saw the Parliament 
House, and the Royal Exchange. 

3. A propjer adjective. The Lord Mayor's Day is a great 
day with the London people. 

4. A titular noun. The General sent his Adjutant to order 
the Surgeon to take care of the wounded Lieutenant. The 
President, the Vice-President, and the Secretary of State were 
present. 

5. The first word of a period. The President is coming. 
Is the President coming? Where is your brother? See 
yonder house. 

1 Capital. {i)tal, ; cap, head, chief. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 899 

6. The first luord of every line of poetry. 

Three things bear mighty sway with men ; 
= = The Sword, the Sceptre, and the Pen. = = 

He, who the first of these can wield, 
In honor's race, shall win the field. 

7. The first word of a full quotation. The fool hath said in 
his heart, '' There is no God." 

4L05. Rule II. A Capital Letter must he used to express 
the loord, I, when used as a pronoun ; aud the word, 0, when 
used as an exclamation. 

8. The word, I, used as a pronoun. Behold, J come quickly. 
Shall /come now? 

9. The word, 0, used as an exclamation. Hear, ! ye 
men, and give heed, I ye sons of men. 

4:0G. Rule III. Capital Letters m.ust he used in the titles 
of hooks, and of chapters, and sometimes, of sections. Generally, 
Capital Letters may he used in such words as are very stfi^ongly 
emphatic. 

Small Capital Letters. 

407. Small Capital Letters are letters, which, in size, 
are hetween capitals and small or lody letters. 

408. Small Capital Letters are used in sub-headings 
of chapters, headings of sections, etc. They are some- 
times used to denote peculiar emphasis. (See the 
Definitions of this Book.) 

Small or Body Letters. 

4:00. Small or Body Letters are the smallest letters of 
the kind or class to lohich they helong. They constitute the 
greatest portion of the letters used in written or in printed luords. 

410. According to form, Letters are divided into 
Plain or Common, and Ornamental Letters. 

411. Plain or Common Letters are divided into 
Roman^ Italic^ and Script Letters. 



400 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Examples. 

1. Roman. BOOKS, books, books. 

2. Italic, BOOKS, looks. 

3. Script. M^(9S^(^, ^0o4^. 

4:13. Ornamental Letters are of many kinds, some 
of whicli are known as ; — 

Runic. Yictoria Text. Ornamented. 

NEW YORK. :j?ennsalvania. MISS0UEI. 

Tuscan. Gothic Heavy. Gothic Light. 

KlBEAiEAo TEXAS. KENTUCKY. 

Full Face. Titling. Antique. 

OXTARIO. SOUTH CAROLINA. TENNESSEE. 

Shaded. Expanded. Alexandrian. 

Wll§e@NlS(]l!«« I3NriDI-A.IsrA- J^orth Parolina. 

413. According to size.^ Letters are divided into 
Great Primer.^ English.^ Pica^ Small Pica^ Long Primer, 
Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, Agate, Pearl, etc. 

G-reat Primer. 

1. When, in the course of human 

English. 

2. Wheiij in the course of human events^ 

^ Pica. 

3. When, in the course of human events, it 

_^^ ^ Small Pica. 

4. When, in tlie course of human events, it becomes 

Long Primer. 

5. When, in the course of human events, it hecomes 

Bourgeois. 

6. When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces- 

Brevier. 

7. "When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 

Minion. 

8. When, in the course of human events, it hecomes necessary for one 

Nonpariel. 

9. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 

Agate. 
10. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 

Pearl. 
*■ ■»•• When, in ttie course of human events, it becomes necessary for erne people to dlsaolr© 



VOWELS. 401 

414. According to sounds Letters are divided into 
three kinds ; Vowels^ Svh-vowels^ and Ah-vowel or S;peech 

Letters. 

415. A Vowel is a letter^ which expresses or names a vocal 
sound. 

416. The Vowel Letters of the English language 
avejive in number; namely, a, e, ^, o, u, 

417. According to the sounds which they express, 
Vowels are Long^ Shorty and Doubtful 

418. A Long Vowel is one which expresses or names a 
long sound. Its sign is the Macron. (See Punctuation.^ 

419. A Short Vowel is one which expresses or names a 
short sound. Its sign is the Breve. 

420. A Doubtful Vowel is one which expresses or names 
either a shorty or a long sound. Its sign is the Doubtful Mark. 

Note YIII. Students should study the signs for different vowel 
sounds, as given in the Standard Dictionaries, 

431. The English Vowel Letters are generally sup- 
posed to represent about fifteen vocal elements of Eng- 
lish words ; as, in the following ; — 

Table of Yowels. 

The Yowel, a has four sounds ; called, the First or Long sound, as 
in fate ; the Second or Short sound, as in fat ; the Third or Italian 
sound, as in far ; and the Fourth or Broad sound, as in fall. 

The Yowel, e, has two sounds ; called, the First or Long soimd, as 
in me; and the Second or Short sound, as in met. 

The Yowel, i, has tivo sounds ; called, the First or Long sound, as 
in pine ; and the Second or Short sound, as in pm. 

The Yowel, o, has four sounds ; called. First or Long sound, as in 
no ; the Second or Short sound, as in not ; the Third or Open sound, as 
in nor; and the Fourth or Broad sound, as in move. 

The Yowel, u, has three sounds ; called, the First or Long sound, as 
in tube ; the Second or Short sound, as in tub ; the Third or Open 
sound, as in full. 

Note IX. The First or Long sound of a Yowel is used as the name 
of that vowel ; thus, we say the Yowel letter, e, etc. ; 



402 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Note X. Two Yowels, used together, are called a DiphtJiong or Di- 
graph. When the}^ express a double vocal sound, they are called a 
Proper Diphthong ; when they express a single vocal sound, they are 
called an Improper Diphthong ; as, oi in bo^l, a proper Diphthong ; ea 
in gr^at, an improper Diphthong. In like manner, three Yowels, used 
together, are called a Triphthong^ or Trigraph ; as eau in beaitty, an m- 
^roper Triphthong. 

4L33. A. Sub-Vowel expresses a sub-vocal element. 

433. The Sub-vowel Letters are seventeen in num- 
ber ; namely, h^ c d^f^ g^ y, Ic^ Z, m, n, p^ q, r, 5, t, v^ w. 

Note XL The Sub-vowel, G^ is sometimes used for k; as, in the 
word, cage ; when so used, it is called C hard. C is sometimes used 
for s ; as, in the word, efface ; when so used, it is called C soft. G is 
sometimes used for z ; as, in the word, sacrifice, pronounced sacrifize, 
G has no peculiar sound, except when taken with the letter h; as, in 
the word, church. That is ; — 

G-enerally, the Sub-vowel, (7, before the vowels, a, o, u, has its hard 
sound or Jc; before the vowels, e, i, it has its soft sound or s; before the 
letter, /i, it has its peculiar sound or cli. 

The Sub-vowel Letter, (r, likewise has its own peculiar sound; as, 
in the word, gag ; when so used, it is called G hard. G is sometimes 
used for the letter, j ; as, in the word, germ ; when so used, it is called 
Gsoft. That is;— 

Generally, the Sub- vowel Letter, G, before the vowels a, o, w, has 
its ha7'd or peculiar sound ; before the vowels, e, i, it has its soft sound 
or j. To this statement, there are many exceptions. 

The Sub-vowels, X, Z, are double letters ; X being equal to ks ; as, 
in the word, exist = eksist; and, sometimes, being equal to the letter, Z; 
as, the first x in the word, Xerxes. Z being equal to ds ; as, in the word, 
zany = dsany. 

Note XIL Sometimes, one letter is substituted for another ; in such 
cases, the substitute should be regarded as the letter, for which it is 
substituted; as, T for Jin fly; I for Fin billion; W for Urn new; 
Ufor "FT in lang?^age. 

4:24:. Ab-yowel or Speech Letters are those which ex- 
press ah-vocal or speech sounds. 

425. The Ab-yowel or Speecli Letters are three in 
number ; namely, c in ch^ j] and 5. 

Note XIIL The remaining portion of the science of Orthography 
is similar to a certain portion of the science of Orthoepy ; hence, it is 
given under the compound term, Orthoepy and Orthography. 



EXEa^CTSES IN" CAPITAL^^^ PU2;( TUATION. 403 

Examples to he corrected and explained hy the pupils. 

1. having woiice started Tlie giblets was detertnined tliat no thing 
should Stop them in there carear until they had ran there ful Coarse 
evere Taj^lor. everc Shoemaker everea Kotchmaker And everigh dan- 
sing Master in Ye \ye old form for the\ sitty ware Enlisting in thare ser 
vices. 

Pupil, ^^Having begins the period; hence, it should begin with a capital. 
tVonce is intended for once^ from which it is formed by prefixing zo, or by Prostke- 
sis^^'' &c. 

2. my name is norval on the grampian hills my father feeds his flock 
a rural swaiji and i his Only son 

3. Heard Ye. Those Loud Contending Waves That Shook ce- 
cropia. 

\. For the strengthe off ye hills We bless the our god 

.5. Our love to god ward, is not to be compared with his to us ward. 

6. The persons inside the coach were Mr Miller a clergyman his son 
a lawyer Mr Angelo a foreigner his lady and a little child 

This may be made into several different sentences both as to the number, pro- 
fessions, and the relations of those in the coach, by varying the punctuation. 

7. 'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
kind natures Bounties, o'er the globe diffused, — 

8. The aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 

9. Withouten trump was proclamation made. 

10. The law i gave to nature him forbids. 

11. Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence. 

12. Let us instant go o'errurn his palaces. 

13. Every good man's sons is blest by what his father has done. 

14. I done what you told me with them things. You haint though! 

15. This book is Neither youi^s or his ? 

16. I am more pleased with the baconian then with the aristotelian 
system of philosophy. Althou I learnt both. 

17. " Yees speaks hinglish as well as hi do" 

18. What clatter, rattle, whizzing, buzzing, screaking, banging 

19. 'This is the thing I told him of which he did not know what to 
d-> with such a dilemma he had got into 

20. We have apples and potatoes and turnips and onions or beans 
or else peas 

21. I saw the moon leading its starry host in the sky. 

22. The sun in its meridian glory illumes the day. 

23. Each one of the jury receive their pay. 

24. Many a man send letters home when absent. 

25. Mathematics are the science of quantity. 

26. Reflect on every word, yon see, read, hear, or speak ; its birth, 
derivation, and history. This will insure you a liberal education. 



404 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



Orthoepy and Orthography. 

4:30. TJie Compound term^ Orthoepy and Osthography, 

is a name given to that part of Grammar^ which includes ; first, 
the Syllabication of Words ; second, the Classification of Words 
according to their Syllabication ; third, the Classification of Words 
according to their Formation ; and fourth, the Classification of 
Wo7'ds according to their Derivation. 

Syllabication of Words. 

4:SS7. First. Syllabication zs a term applied to the 
science and art of separating a word into its syllables. 

Rules for Syllabication. 

428. Rule I. A word must he separated into as mang syU 

tables as it has distinct vocal sounds. 

Examples. 

1. Con-stan-ti-no-ple ; con-ven-ience. 

In the word, convenience^ i is used for y, and the final e is quantita- 
tive ; hence, there are three distinct vocal sounds, and three syllables. 

2 A-e-ri-al; beau-tj; re-joice; re-sound. 

439. Rule II. A consonant^ betv^een two vowels of a root, 
must be taken ivith the former vowel, if the vowel be short ; buty 
must not be taken with the former vowel, if the vowel be long. 

3. Former Vowel Short. Hon-or; min-us ; di-min-ish ; min- 
u-end; min-er-al; hom-i-cide. 

4. Former Vowel Long. No-ta-ble; re-verse; pre-ju-di- 
cial. 

Note I. This Rule prevails not only in the English, but also in the 
Latin Language ; although, by many students of the latter language, 
it is entirely disregarded. Thus, hom-o is erroneously syllabified ho- 
mo, although all English words on the same root are syllabified ac- 
cording to Rule II. ; as, hom-i-cide, etc. 



NUMBERING AND NAMING SYLLABLES. 405 

430. Rule III. If a prefix^ or a suffix^ contain a vowel^ it 
must he syllabified by itself. 

5. Pre-exist; un-con-troll-a-ble ; in-con- ven-ient-lj. 

431. Rule IY. A letter of euphony must be syllabified by 
itself or with its preceding consonant, 

6. Ac-cept-(a)-bil-(i)-tj; con-stel-la-tion ; re-press-i-ble. 

433. Rule V. The immediate elements of a .compound 

word must be syllabified separately, 

7. Nev-er, the, less; not, with, stand-ing. 

Numbering and Naming Syllables, 

433. The Syllables of words are numbered from tlie 
left to the right ; as, First Syllable, Second Syllable, 
Third Syllable, etc. They are named from the right to 
the left ; the last syllable is called the Ultimate Syl- 
lable ; the next to the last or the second from the right 
is called the Penultimate or Penult ; the third from the 
right or the Syllable before the Penult is called the 
Antepenult; the fonrth from the right or the Syllable 
before the Antepenult is called the Preanfe^ent^Z^/ and 
so on, alternating ante^ and^re; as, Preantepreante^ etc. 

8. Un^-in'-teP-li*-gi^bLl«-i^-ty.« 

Ly is the ulUmate Syllable ; ^, the penult; 5^7, the antepenult; gi^ the 
preante penult ; 1% the ante preante penult., etc. 

Classification of Words according to their Syllabication. 

434. Second. According to their Syllabication^ 
Words are divided into Monosyllable.^ and Polysyllable, 

435. A Monosyllable Word is one having O'Yie syllable. 

43G. A Polysyllable Word is one having two or more 

syllables. 

1 PEEANTEpEirDXT=-=PEBANTKPBNTJLTiMATB. «,— ; (a)t, ; wi, many; ult, 

the last ; ante '^pre before. 



406 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAG-E. 

437. Polysyllable Words are divided into the 
Dissyllabic^ or two syllables; Trisyllabic^ or three sylla- 
bles ; Tetrasyllabic^ or four syllables ; Pentasyllabic^ or 
five syllables ; Hexasyllabic^ or six syllables ; Hepta- 
syllabic^ or seven syllables ; Octasyllabic^ or eight sylla- 
bles ; Novisyllabic^ or nine syllables ; etc. 

Classification of Words according to their Formation. 

438. Third. According to ihein formation^ Words 
are divided into Simple^ and Compound. 

439. A Simple Word is one whose, immediate elements are 

syllables. 

Thus ; the, never, less ; with, not, standing ; etc. 

440. A Compound Word is one whose immediate elements 
are words. 

Thus; nevertheless, notwithstanding; etc. 

Classification of Words according to their Derivation. 

441. Fourth. According to their derivation. Words 
are Primitive^ or Derivative. 

442. A Primitive Word is a simple word^ without prefix^ 
or suffix. 

As, join, boy, song, cruel, vision, verse. 

443. A Derivative Word is one which is formed hy join- 
ing jj^refixes^ or suffixes^ or both to a primitive word. 

As, rejoin, unjoin, boyish, songless, cruelly, revision, visionary, irre- 
versibility. 

Note II. Many English Primitive or Root words were also used as 
Root or Primitive Words in other languages, as the Greek, Latin, etc. ; 
hence, when these Primitive or Root words, and words derived from 
them, occur in the English, they are said to be derived from the G-reek, 
Latin, etc. See Webster's Dictionary. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WOKDS. 407 

444. A Derivative Word may be regarded as an 
ancient phrase, or sentence, which, by long and familiar 
use, has been condensed into what appears to be a single 
word. See Contractions of Sentences, 

445. Grenerally, the Eoot or Basis of a Derivative 
word may be regarded as a principal word of a Phrase, 
or of a sentence; the suffix, as. an adjunct of the Eoot 
or Primitive word ; and the prefix, as a relator. This 
is especially true, when the Derivative word is an old 
word. 

Note III. Anciently, phrases and sentences were written from the 
right to the left ; hence, words formed by contracting these phrases, or 
sentences, may be most readily analyzed from the right to the left ; 
while, words, formed by contracting phrases and sentences written from 
the left to the right, may be more readily analyzed from the left to the 
right; and thus, the comparative ages of these words may be known. 

Note IV. In the following analyses, we speak of Saxon, Roman, 
and Greek Roots, Suffixes, and Prefixes, rather because these expres- 
sions are in vogue, than because we have faith in the theory, that the 
English is merely derived from these languages. In this department 
of English Philology, there is a wide and almost unexplored field, 
offering many attractions and great rewards to the successful explorer. 

Examples. 

1. Addition, ion^ science and art of j (^)^, that which 
is ; d^ puts, joints ; ad^ together. 

2. Nevermore, more, — ; ever^ — ; n=znej not. 

3. Fractional, alj belonging to ; ion, state or condition 
of; tj that which ; fraCj has been broken. 

4. Mixed, ed^ condition of, state of; mtx^zmzsCj one kind 
scattered through another. 

Note Y. Sometimes a word having an ancient origin, has subse- 
quently received a prefix ; as, — 

5. Thing, Nothing, mg^ condition of; th^ [that which] 
fixed, put, placed; no, — . 



4-08 KOOTS CHANGED FOR EUPHONY. 

446, Sometimes tlie final letters of the primitive or 
root words are changed for the sake of Euphony, or 
for the sake of agreeable sound^ and ease of speaking. 

First Change, Final e is dropped when a suffix beginning 
with a vowel is added; as — 



love 


drive 


blue 


create 


globe 


\oYahle 


driver 


bluish 


creator 


globw?e. 



Exception, Generally, before the suffixes able and ouSj 
words ending in ge, retain the e ; those in ce^ retain e before 
aJZe, but change it into i before ous ; as — 

change outrage peace grace 

ehangea6?e outrageows peacea6?e gractous. 



Second Change, Abridge, acknowledge, argue, awe, due, 
judge, lodge, and true, drop e before ful, ly, and sometimes 
before ment ; as — 

abridge awe due true judge 

abridgmerz^ aw/wZ du?y truZy '^vAgmerd, 

Third Change, le is changed into y before ing ; as — 

lie tie die underlie 

lying tying dying underlying. 

Fourth Change, E, preceded by c, s, or t, aspirated, or by 
V, becomes i before a suffix beginning with o ; as — 

grace erase create behave 

gracious eraszon creatiori - behavior. 

Fifth Change, T, not after a vowel in its own syllable, is 
usually changed into i ; sometimes into e ; as — 

party ]o\\j comely hearty pity 

parties jollmess comeliness heartiness piteous. 

Exception First, Lay, say, and pay, change y into i ; as — 

lay say pay 

laid said paid. 

Exception Second, Y before ing is never changed ; as — 

pity lay say pay 

pity% layiw^ saym^r V^ying, 



SAXON PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 400 

Sixth Change. A consonant, preceded by a single vowel, is 
doubled at the end of a monosyllable, or at the end of any 
word accented on its final syllable ; as — 
sad snap begin regret refer 

sadc?er snappish beginner regretring referring. 

Saxon Prefixes. 

Prefixes. Meanings. Examples. 

A — , at, in, on ; afar, at a distance ; abed, in bed ; afoot, on foot. 

Be — , to, on ; bestir, to stir ; 6efool, to fool ; 6edrip, to drip on. 

Down-, below, under ; downxight, right below ; c?owntrodden. 

For — , away, not ; /brgive, to give away ; forget, not to get. 

Fore — , before ; /bretell, to tell before; /brewarn, to warn before. 

Mis — , wrong ; m/sspell, to spell wrong ; misstatQ, to state ivrong. 

Mid — , middle of; midday, middle of day; midshi'p, middle of ship. 

N — , not ; neither, not either ; never, not ever ; none, not one. 

No — , no, not ; nothing, no thing ; nobody, not a body. 

Off — , without ; offset, set without ; o^hand, without handling. 

On — , at, against: onset, set at, or against ; onslaught, to dash against. 

Out — , moi^e, beyond; ow^bid, bid more; outvwn, run beyond. 

Over — , too great, above; overvalue, value too great; overflow, flow above. 

Un — , remove; (before an Affirmer) tmbar, remove a bar; wnbolt, 

Un — , not ; (before an Adjunct) wnbidden, not bidden; wnjust. 

Under-, less, below; underbid, bid less; tmc?e?'sheriff*, below a sherifl". 

Up — , aloft, above ; wjolift, lift aloft ; ifjoheave, heave above. 

With — ,from, against; withdvsiw, drsiw from; withsta-nd, stand against, 

Saxon Suffixes. 

Suffixes. Meanings. Examples. 

— DOM, state, dominion; freedom, state of being free; dukec?om. 

— ED, did, condition ; healec?, did heal ; ruinec?, condition of ruin. 

— EN, made of, is ; woolen, made of wool ; beaten, is beat. 

— ER, one who, more ; laugher, one who laughs ; louder, more loud. 

— ERN, toward, of; northern, foivarc? the north; southern, 0/ the— 

— ES, more than one ; foxes, more than one fox ; boxes, wzore than one" 

— ESS, female; tigress, j^ma/e tiger ; songstress, /ma/e singer, 

— EST, most ; s\Yeetest, most sweet ; broadest, most broad. 

— FUL, abounding , full ; plenti/lJ, abounding in plenty ; fear/w/. 

— HEAD, nature ; Godhead, nature of God. 

— HOOD, state; knight^oocf, sto^e of a knight; msinhood. 

— IE, young; lassfe, a ?/om7?^ lass ; bairnze, a yown^ child. 

— ING, continuing, tending; sinking, continuing to sing; sweetening. 
18 



410 



SAXON SUFFIXES AND WORDS. 



Suffixes. Meanings. 



Examples. 



— ISH, like, belonging ; hluish, like blue ; Swedish. 

— KIN, young, small ; lamb^m, a young lamb ; fir^m, a small cask. 

— LING, young, little ; diViOkling, a young duck ; lordling, a little lord. 

-LIKE, LT, manner ; manlike, man/j/, in the manner of a man. 

— NESS, condition, quality ; healthiness, condition of health. 

— OCK, young, small ; bullocA:, a young bull ; hillocA;, a small hill. 

— Ric, office ; bishopric, office of bishop. 

— ^s, -s', of; mountain's top, top of the mountain. 

— SHIP, state, office; courtship, the state of courting; consulship. 

— SOME, being ; gladsome, being glad ; weariso7«e, being weary 

— ST, -T, the one addressed ; thou loves^, shak ; the one addressed, loves 

— s, -TH, the one of whom we speak ; loves, loYeth. 

— STER, one who ; songster, one who sings ; youngster, one who — 

—WARD, toward; ^\.jward, toward XhQ sky ', northwarc?. 

— WISE, way ; weatherzt'ise, way of the weather ; likei^ise. 

— T, little, place, possessing, dominion ; babz/, a little babe ; granary, 

a place for grain ; crafty, possessing craft ; duchy, domin- 

ion of a duchess. 



The following Table of Saxon words is inserted to be taken 
as a basis for exercises in learning the Prefixes and Sufiixes, 
and in analyzing the words. 

Take each word in the order of the Table, or miscellaneously, and 
if it be a Root, first tell what Prefixes may be used with it, and then 
what Suffixes, and the effect of adding each ; thus — Bid is a primi- 
tive, or root-word ; with the prefix for, ybrbid, it signifies bid away, 
that is, to refuse ; 7?izsbid, a wrong bid ; ow^bid, bid beyond ; oi.'erbid, bid 
above ; wzibid, not bidden ; underhidi, bid below. 

Now take bid with the Suffixes, as follows ; bido?ew, is bid ; bidc?er, 
one who bids ; hiMing, continuing to bid ; bid's, q/'a bid ; bids', of bids : 
bids, does bid. 



Saxon Primitives and Deriyatives. 



Abet 


unborn 


chick 


unearthly 


ground 


after 


box 


children 


east 


grown 


ale 


boys 


uncleansed 


endless 


harder 


all 


bred 


cold 


unfatted 


heaven 


answer 


breeding 


become 


fatherly 


withheld 


army 


broad 


darkly 


free 


uphold 


forbearing 


brothers 


darling 


befriended 


home 


bind 


recalled 


daughter 


frosty 


hopeless 


blacki!;g 


cash 


dawn 


gray 


husband 


blithe 


catlike 


dishes 


greet 


idleness 





SAXON ^ 


^ORDS — LATIN PREFIXE 


3. 411 


iron 


remove 


priest 


misspeak 


want 


jerked 


narrower 


quake 


springlike 


was 


keg 


benighted 


queenlike 


star 


wasp 


kernels 


noon 


quick 


stoutest 


overwatched 


unkingly 


noseless 


rails 


tame 


weight 


kneel 


benumb 


rain 


tearless 


outwork 


knotted 


oak 


rakish 


bethink 


womanhood 


unladylike 


oath 


overridden 


thralldom 


wretchedness 


lee 


oats 


rising 


thunder 


yard 


alight 


often 


roar 


tins 


yawning 


lioness 


orchard 


roguish 


toilsome 


year 


loft 


oven 


unroofed 


untrue 


yellowish 


maiden 


unowned 


round 


mistrusted 


unyeo manlike 


raismated 


pathless 


safer 


twist 


unyielding 


month 


peace 


beseemeth 


unuttered 


yoke 


mornings 


pearl-like 


shalt 


vied 


your 


mostly 


pebble 


sister 


voya2:er 


youngster 


mother 


pipes 


oversorrowful waggish 


youthful. 



Latin Prefixes. 

Prefixes. Meanings. Examples. 

A-, AB-, ABS-, away J from; abject, cast away; avert, turn^om. 
Ad-, to, for ; advert, turn to ; adjoin, join to* 

Special Rules for Ad. 

a. Ad, before 5, followed by c, or p, loses d, and also in 
avenue and avow ; as — 

ac?scribe ac?spire arfvenue ac?vow 

ascribe aspire avenue avow. 

h. The d in ad, before c, f, g, I, n, p, r, 5, and t, is changed 
into the. same ; as — 

ac^cept acffix acfgrieve acHure ac?nul 

accept o/'fix aggrieve allure awnul. 

ac/pear, ac/rear ac/sist acftract 

appear arrear assist attract. 

Am-, AMB-, around, about ; amputate, cut around; ambition, going about. 
Ante-, before ; antedate, date before ; antemeridian. 

CiRCUM-, about, around; c?rcMwpolar, about the pole ; cfrcwwinavigate. 
Cis-, on this side; czsalpine, on iHs sic?e the Alps. 

Con-, for cum-, with, together ; contend, strive with ; contribute. 

Special Rules for Con. 

a. Con, before a vowel, or h, drops the n; as, cowexist, 
coexist ; coTihere, cohere. 



412 LATIN PEEFIXES. 

h. Con, before n, in a few words, is changed into cog ; as — 

connate connative connomen cognizant 

connate co_9'native cognomen cognizant. 

c. The n in con, before I, m, and r, is changed into the 
same ; as — 

conleague coTimix commotion cowrespond 

co/league co?7imix coTTimotion correspond. 

d. The 71 in con before h and p, is changed into m ; as — 

conbine co^bustive compassion compress 

combine cowibustive co?mpassion co??ipress. 

e. Con sometimes drops n before the following letters, h,fy 
g,j\ I, p, r, s, t, and w; as — 

Co-bishop, co-factor, cogent, co-juror, co-laborer, co-plant, co-relation, 
cosine, cotangent, co-worker. 

Contra-, against; contraposition, position against; controyevt. 
Counter-, against; coMm^erbalance, balance a^raims^, or opposite. 
De-, down, from; crescent, to climb down ; dethrone, from the throne. 

Dis-, away, not, off; distveict, to draw away ; Jishonest, not honest. 
Special Joules for Dis. 

a. Dis always drops s before v, and frequently before other 
letters ; as — 

disvide disYGYt c?isminish c^fslute disgrQss 

divide divert c^iminish c?ilute c?zgress. 

b. Dis, before /, is changed into dif; diffuse for disiusem 
Ex-, out ; carpel, to drive out ; carport, to carry out. 

Special Rules for Ex. 

a. Ex drops x befor3 h, d, g,j, I, m, n, r, and v ; as — 

earbuUition ea:duce ergress ex]eet earlude eormotion, &c. 
ebullition educe egress eject elude emotion. 

h. Ex^ before c, I, and 5, is sometimes changed into ec ; as, 

earcentric ea:lectic exstasy ea:logue 

eccentric eclectic ecstasy eclogue. 

c. Ex, before /, is changed into ef except in the word ex* 
foUfde ; as, ^/face, for exface ; e/'fect, for exfect. 

Extra-, beyond ; ea:^?'ajudicial, beyond a legal court. 



LATIN PRP:FIXES. 4:1?j 

In-, (before an act) in, upon ; ///habit, to dwell in; inwdkQ, to call upon 
In-, (before an adjunct) not; i/zcautious, not cautious ; i^apt, not apt. 

Special Rules for In. 

a. The w, before / and r, is changed into the same ; as — 
tVimine ewliberal zwruption inreligion 

tVJ'Tmine illiberal irruption trreligion. 

5. In^ before m and p, is changed into im ; as — 
rnmerse mport immoral zwperfect 

immerse import immoral imperfect. 

Inter-, among, between; intermingle, mingle amon^; interpose, place— • 
Intro-, within ; introduce, lead within ; intromit, send luithin. 

Ob-, against^ in the way ; o6trude, thrust against ; o6ject, cast in the way. 

Special Rule for Ob. 

a. Ob, before c,f andp, changes h into the same; as — 
obcviv o6fend oppress occasion o6pose 

occur offend oppress occasion oppose. 

Per-, through ; perceive, look through ; perennial, through the year. 
Post-, after ; joosiraeridian, after noon ; postpone, put after. 
Pre-, before ; joredict, tell before ; prelude, before the play. 
Preter-, more, past ; preternatural, moi^e than natural ; jore^erit, gone— 
Re-, again, back ; return, turn again ; recline, lean back. 
Betro-, back ; retrospect, looking back ; retrovert, turn back. 
Se-, apart, away ; secede, go apart ; seduce, lead away. 
Sin-, sine-, loithout ; sincere, without wax ; siwecure, without care. 

a. Simple, for sineple, without folds. 

Sub-, after, under ; sw6junctive, joined after ; subscrihe, written under. 

Special Rules for Sub. 

a. The h in sub, before f is changed into /, and sometimes 
before c and p, is changed into these letters ; as — 
suffer sM^fix sw6ceed sw^port swJpress 

suffer sw/fix swcceed supipovt suppress, 

h. Sub, in a few words, before c, p, s, t, becomes sus ; as — 

susceptible subpend sw^spect sw^tain 

susceptible sifspend suspect sustain. 

SuBTER-, beneath ; subterfuge, fleeing beneath. 

Super-, over, upon ; superadd, oyeradd ; swjoerscribe, write upon, 

SuR-, over, upon ; surcharge, overcharge ; surface, upon the face. 



414 LATIX SUFFIXES. 

Traxs-, over change ; trans'^OYi, carry over ; trans];)Ose, cJiange place. 

a. Trans, is three times used as tra, and once as tres ; as^ 
2'?T/duce. ?'/T/ditiou. /rc/ject, ^r^spass. 
Ultha-, beyond ; idfraist, one wiio is beyond ; uUramsiYine, beyond the— 

Latin Suffixes. 

Suffixes. Meaxi>'gs. Examples. 

—AC, peiiaining to ; cardiac, pertaining to the heart. 

— ACEOUS, having; hevhaceous, having hevhs. 

— ACT, being, office; accuracy, 5e/;?^ accurate ; magistracy, office of a — 

— AGE, peiiaining to ; porterage pei-taining to a porter. 

— AL, pertaining to ; persona/, pertaining to the person. 

— AX, -IAN, p)ertaining to, one who; sylva?i, pertaining to the woods,' 

Christ/a??, peii:aining to Christ, one who believes in Christ. 
— ^AXCE, AXCY, State of being : constancy, state of being constant. 
— AXT, one icho, -ing : sevyant, one icho serves ; pleasant, pleasing. 
— AR, pertaining to. having, one v:ho ; ^oAar , pertaining to the sun; mus- 
cular, having muscles ; schola/', one who has studied. 
— ARD, one who : la^o^ard, one who waits. 
— ART, one who, pertaining to ; adversary, o/^e zfAo is adverse ; military, 

pertaining to militia. 
— ATE, having, ivho ; fortunaff, having fortune : prima/c, who is first. 
— ATE, to niaJce, give, take, put : alienafe, fo make an alien; anima/g, 

give life ; appropriafe, taJce to one's self; dislocate, put out of place. 
— BLE. may be, worthy : cnva.ble, may be cured ; respecta6/e, worthy of— 
— CLE, little, sniaJ.l ; cantic/e, a little song; icic/e, a small stick of ice. 
— EE, one who. to whom ; guarantee, one who guarantees ; donee, to whom 

anythino: is given. 
— EER, one who ; muleteer, one icho drives mules. 
— EXCE, -EXCY, condition, -ing ; cade?zce, falhn^; ixmoQency, condition 

of innocence. 
— EXT, one that, -ing ; stude;?;', one that studies; confide;?^, being sure. 
— ESCEXCE, -ESCEXT, growing ; convalesce;ice, conyailescoit, growing well. 
— FT, to make ; clari/7/, to make clear ; dei/y, to make a god. 
— ic, -ICAL, like, peHaining to ; angel/c, like an angel ; astronom/ca/, 

pertaining to the stars. 
— ICE, one who. being, thing, place ; novice, one who is new; just/ce, 5e- 

ing just ; uotz'ce, thing that makes kno\\Ti ; ofF/ce, place of business. 
= — ics, science, art of; mathematics, science of quantity ; calisthenics, 

art of exercise. 
— ID, being, -ing ; torp/c/, being dull; \i\id. Hying. 



LATIN SUFFIXES. 415 

Suffixes. Meanings. Examples. 

— ILE, belonging to, may be ; juveniVe, belonging to youth ; fragz7e, may 
be broken. 

— INE, belonging to, like ; marzrze, belonging to the sea ; infantine, like an 
infant. 

— ION, act of, state of being, -ing ; conflagratzow, act of burning ; per- 
fection, state of being perfect ; electio?2, choosing. 

— ISE, -izE, make, give; idealize, TTia^e ideas ; systematise, give system. 

— ISH, to make; publish, to make public. (See same in Saxon.) 

— ISM, state of being, idiom, doctrine; heroi's?7i, state of being di. hero; 
anglicism, English idiom ; Judaism, doctrine of the Jews. 

— 1ST, one who; theorist, one who forms theories; artist, one who prac- 
tises an art. 

— ITE, one who; favorite, one who is favored. 

— ITY, -TY, state of being ; humidity , state of being raoist ; novelty , state 
of being new. 

— IVE, one who, capable of, -ing ; fugitive, one who flies ; curatire, ca- 
pable of curing ; passive, receivm^. 

— MENT, state of being, act of thing that ; confinewien^, state of being con- 
fined ; encouragemerii, act of encouraging ; statement, thing that 
is stated. 

— MONY, state of being, what ; sanctiwony, state of being sacred ; testi- 
mony, what is testified. 

— ND, to be; minueno?, to be lessened; multiplicaiic?, to be multiplied. 

— OR, one who ; testator, one who makes a will ; creator, one who creates. 

— ORY, place where, that which, who, pertaining to, -ing ; armory, place 
where arms are kept ; mem.ojy, that which remembers ; directory, 
those who direct ; consolatory, pertaining to consolation ; prohibit- 
ory, prohibiti'n^r. 

— OSE, fall of; verbose, full of words ; jocose, full of jokes. 

— ous, full of belonging to, consisting of -ing ; hximorous, full of humor; 
igneows, belonging to fire ; timorous, fearmy. 

— RY, being, art of place where ; bravery, being brave ; surgery, art of 
a surgeon ; fishery, place where fishes are caught. 

— TUDE, -UDE, state of being ; soY\tude, state of being solitary. 

— ULE, little; globw/e, a little globe; granwZe, a little grain. 

— URE, the thing, state of being, act of; pictwre, thing painted ; pleasure, 
state of being pleased ; seizure, the act of seizing. 

— Y, state of being, -ing ; modesty, state of being modest ; sympathy, 
sympathiziny. 



il6 



LATIN ROOTS. 



Latin Roots. 

In the following list of Latin words, the root only, or the 
part preceding the hyphen, is translated ; as, in ago, ag means 
act, and o means L 

Roots not translated will suggest their own meanings ; as, 
act'Um, an act ; angul-us, an angle. 

These Roots are to be used in the same manner as the 
Saxon Roots. 



Act-um 


clam-o 


bear 


breathe 


lu-o 


ag-o 


cry 


feri-o 


humus 


wash 


act 


claud-o 


strike 


ground 


mag-nus 


al-o 


claus-um 


ferve-o 


imper-o 


great 


nourish 


shut 


grow hot 


imperative 


{ man-US 
( main 


alt- us 


clin-o 


finis 


ira 


high 


lean 


end 


ire 


hand 


am-o 


corp-us 


fix-us 


( jaci-o 
1 jact 


mar-e 


love 


body 


flect-o 


sea 


angul-us 


cred-o 


bend 


throw 


mater 


anima 


trust 


flig-o 


judic-o 


mother 


life 


culp-a 


strike 


judge 


mem-or 


annus 


blame 


flu-o 


jug-um 


mindful 


year 


cur-a 


flow 


yoke 


mensur-a 


antigu-us 


care 


foli-um 


( jung-o 
( junct 


measure 


apt-us 


don-um 


fort 


merc-or 


aqua 


9^ft 


strong 


yoin 


trade 


water 


dormi-o 


j frang-o 
1 fract 


jur-o 


merg-o 


arb-or 


sleep 


swear 


plunge 


tree 


dubi-us 


break 


jus 


minu-o 


arde-o 


duc-o 


fugi-o 


law 


lessen 


hum 


lead 


fee 


lat-um 


{ mitto 
] miss 


audi-o 


em-o 


fund-o 


carry 


hear 


buy 


deep 


leg-o, lect 


send 


cad-o, cas 


ens 


( genus 
( generis 


choose 


mens 


fall 


being 


lev-o, levat 


mountain 


can-o 


equ-us 


kind 


lift 


monstr-o 


sing 


equal 


( gradi-or 
I gress-us 


lig-o 


show 


capi-o 


err-o 


bind 


( move-o 
1 mot 


take 


fabul-a 


by steps 


lingu-a 


cor, cord-is 


faci-es 


grati-a 


tongue 


mult-US 


heart 


face 


favor 


liter-a 


many 


ced-o 


( faci-o 
'[ fact-um 


grav-is 


letter 


( nect-o 
1 nex-um 


walk 


heavy 


loc-us 


cell-a 


make 


grex 


place 


tie 


centr-um 


faed-us 


flock 


loqu-or 


( neg-o 
1 negat-um 


cera 


league 


habe-o 


speak 


wax 


felix 


hold 


lud-o 


deny 


circul-us 


happy 
fend-o 


h^re-o 


play 


{ neuter 
1 neutr-um 


cit-o 


stick 


lum-en 


quick 


fer-o 


hal-o 


light 


neither 





LATIN ROOTS — GREE 


nov-us 


hang, deal 


scans-um 


Tfew 


ped-is 


90 


numer-um 


foot 


scio, sciens 


number 


{ plic-o 
( plicat-um 


knowing 


( nunci-o 
( nunciat 


( scrib-o 
I script-um 


fold 


tell 
\ ord-o 
'[ ordin-is 


( pon-o 
( posit-um 


ivrite 
( sent-io 
( sens-um 


put 


order 


( port-o 
( portat-um 


think 


( or-o 
( orat-um 


( sequ-or 
1 secut-us 


carry 


speah 


( pung-o 
\ punct-um 


follow 


par 


simil-is 


equal 


point 


like 


pars, part-is 


quot 


( solv-o 
( solut-um 


( pell-o 
\ puls-um 


how many 


rat-US 


loose 


drive 


reason 


( spir-o 
] spirat-um 


( pend-eo 
( pens-um 


rect-us 


scand-o 


breathe 



GREEK PREFIXES. 



417 



St-0 

^ stat-um 

stand 
( stru-o 
( struct-um 

build 

j temp-US 
I tempor-is 

time 
( tend-o 
( tens-um 

stretch 
( ten-eo 
\ tent-um 

hold 

termin-us 

end 

terr-a 

earth 
( trah-o 
1 tract-um 



draw 
tres, tri-a 
three 

\ tue-or 

[ tuit-us 
see 
veh-o 
vect-um 
carry 

j ven-io 

\ vent-um 
come 

{ vert-o 

( vers-um 
turn 
voc-o 

^ vocat-um 
call 
volv-o 

^ volut-um 
roll. 



Greek Prefixes. 

Prefixes. Meanings. Examples. 

A-, AN-, without f not ; atheist, without God ; anomaly, not like. 

Ambi-, AMPHI-, double ; amphihions, double lived. 

Ana-, back again ; a?2alysis, tracing back again. 

Ant-, ante-, opposite ; aw^arctic, opposite the north ; a/idpathy. 

Aph-, APO-, from ; apAorism, separate from ; ajoostle, one sent from. 

Cat-, CATA-, from side to side, down ; catechise, make sounds from 

side to side ; catoract, water falling down. 
Di-, DIA-, through, between ; cZ/ameter, measure through. [people. 

En-, em-, in, among ; emphasis, in a stress of voice ; endemic, awon^ the 
Epi-, upon; ejoidemic, upon the people. 
Hyper-, over, beyond ; hypo'critical, over critical. 
Hypo-, under ; hypothesis, placed under, 
Meta-, beyond ; metophysics, beyond nature. 

Para-, par-, beside, like ; ;?arallel, beside another ; joarody, like an ode. 

Peri-, about, around; joenhelion, about the sun; penmeter, measure 

Sy-, Syn-, together ; synthesis, sz/ntax, putting together. \around. 

Special Rules for Syn. 

a, Syn, before 5, drops n ; as, sysieva for 5ynstem. 

J. The n in Syn, before I and m, is changed into the same ; 
as, in 5?/nlable, syllsJole ; 5i/7?metry, symmeiYj, 

€, The n in Syn, before h and ^, is changed into m ; as, in 

svnho\ symbol ; syni^honj, symphony. 
18* 



418 



GREEK ROOTS. 



G-REEK Roots. 

These Roots are to be used in the same manner as the 

Saxon and Latin Roots. 

Acou-o 

hear 

agoge-us 

leader 

allel-on 

one another 

alpha 

angel-lo 

antlirop-os 

man 

arche 

chief 

arct-os 

hear 

arist-03 

noblest 

arithm-os 

astr-on 

star 

authent-eo 

aut-os 

one's self 

bas-is 

bib]-os 

hook 

bi-os 

life 

bol-eo 

throw 

botan-e 

plant 

( charis 

( charit-os 
christ-os 
chron-os 
time 



chym-os 


heli-os 


neur-on 


juice 


sun 


nerve 


crat-os 


hemis 


od-os 


power 


half 


road 


crit-es 


hier-os 


oid-03 


judge 


sacred 


form, like 


CYCl-US 


hom-os 


onom-a 


circle 


equal 


name 


deca 


hor-os 


orth-os 


ten 


boundary 


right, true 


dem-os 


hydor 


oxy-s 


people 


water 


sharp 


didasc-o 


idea 


( pas, pan 
( pant-OS 


teach 


idi-os 


diploma 


lab-o 


all 


dis, di 


take 


pater 


two 


lip-o 


father 


dynast-ia 


leave 


path-OS 


power 


lith-os 


feeling 


ep-os 


stone 


pedi-a 


word 


log-OS 


learning 


ethos 


reason 


( phan-o 
\ phen-o 


moral science 


lys-is 


eu 


loosing 


appear 


icell 


mathem-a 


pher-o 


ge 


mechan-as 


carry 


earth 


mel-os 


phil-os 


genea 


song, poem 


lover 


hirth 


metr-on 


phon-e 


gloss-a 


measure 


sound 


tongue 


mon-os 


phras-is 


gon-ia 


one alone 


phrase 


angle 


mus-a 


phys-is 


graph-o 


poem 


nature 


draw 


naus 


poie-o 


gramma 


ship 


poem 



pol-is 

city 

poly 

many 

psych-e 

spirit 

rhythm-os 

length 

schol-a 

soph-ia 

wisdom 

spher-a 

stas-is 

stand 

stell-o 

send 

stroph-e 

turning 

tact-OS 

order 

techn-e 

art 

tel-os 

distance 

the-os 

God 

thesis 

ton-OS 

sound 

trop-os 

turning 

typ-us 

type 

zo-on 

animal 



The foregoing lists embrace all the Prefixes and Suffixes, 
while only the principal definition of each is given, fron 
which it will be easy to infer the variations in meaning, thus^ 
syn chronos w^ould mean tog ether -time ^ that is, same time. 

The roots given are mostly those that occur in the school- 
books ; thus, subtrahend, nd, to be ; trah, taken ; suh, away. 

Let each new term be carefully analyzed when its use is 
learned. 



LATIN AND GREEK NUMERALS. 



419 



447, In the different sciences the Latin and Greek 
Numerals are frequently used as Prefixes and some- 
times as Roots ; as — 



wniValve monomial 


trinriQ 


unity 


5iValve 6momial 


combine 


quaterlj 


irtvalve trinomial 


decimsil 


centennial. 


CARDINALS. 


ORDINALS. 


Latin. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Greek. 


1. Unus, one 


heis 


primus, first 


protos 


2. duo, two 


duo 


secundus, second 


deuteros 


3. tres, three^ Sfc. 


treis 


tertius, third, ^c. 


tritos 


4. quatuor 


tettares 


quartus 


tetartos 


6. quinque 


pente 


quintus 


pemptos 


6. sex 


hex 


sextus 


hektos 


7. septem 


hepta 


Septimus 


hebdomos 


8. octo 


okto 


octavus 


ogdoos 


9. novem 


ennea 


nonus 


ennatos 


10. decern 


deka 


decimus 


dekatos 


IL undecim 


hendeka 


undecimus 


endekatos 


12. duodecim 


duodeka 


duodecimus. 


duodekatos. 


13. tredecim 


dekatreis 






14. quatuordecim 


dekatetares distributives. 


15. quindeciin 


dekapente Singuli, one by one 


aplous 


16. sexdecim 


dekaex 


bini, two by two 


diplous 


17. septendecim 


dekaepta 


terni, three by three. 


^c. triplous 


18. octodecim 


dekaokto 


quaterni. 


tetraplous. 


19. novemdecim 


dekaennea 




20. viginti 


heikosi 




• 


30. triginta 


triakonti 


Semel, once 


monos, one 


100. centum 


hekaton 


bis, twice 


di-, half 


1000. mille. 


chilioi. 


ter, thrice, Sfc, 


tri-, third, Sp:, 






quater. 


quadri-. 



Translate the followiDg words ; units, hecatombs, septen 
nary, tetrasyllahio, dual, decimal, duodecimal, septuagint, 
triplicate, quadrennial tertiary, decade, octavo, quarto, secon- 
dary, hebdomadal, sextuple, quaternary, quintuple, biennial, 
12mo., 4to., 16mo., Svc^ duplicate. 



420 THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 

Note.— At the commencement of Chapter II., the Rhetoric of 
Thought Language was divided into the two departments, the Con- 
structive, and the Ornamental ; and, the statement was made that Orna- 
mental Rhetoric could not be fuUy unfolded until the Grammar of 
Thought Language had been presented, which has now been done. 

Note. — Chapter YL, comprising what was originally Book I., of the 
former Work, has been inserted both as a matter of convenience for 
reference and, also, as a brief outline of the sources of human know- 
ledge, and the means by which it is obtained, is kept, and is used. 

Should it not be found necessary for the complete understanding of 
the Science of Language, this chapter can be omitted in the future 
editions of this Work. 



CHAPTER y. 
Ornamental Ehetoric. 

1 . Ornamental Rhetoric is a name given to those means 
hy which the narration is made more fitting and attractive^ so 
tliat the narratee shall he led to seek for the thought itself. 

2. Divisions. Ornamental Rhetoric is divided into 
tliree parts; namely, Part I., Grammatical Figures; 
Part II., Rhetorical Figures ; Part III., Rhetorical Com- 
'position. 

Part I. Grammatical Figures. 

Lit. Def. The word, figmre^ nieans shape^ form. 

3. Grammatical Figures are changes in the forms of 
words^ or in some means of knowing their grammatical attri- 
butes^ or in both. 

4. Grammatical Figures are divided into three kinds ; 
Figures of Orthography^ Figures of Etymology^ and Figures 
cf Syntax. 

S* Figures of Orthography come from changing the 
spelling of words. 

I. Ar-cha'-ism, or spelling a word according' to its old or obsok:e 
form, or according to a form, which is rapidly going oat of use or be- 
coming obsolescent; as, many of the Irregular Verbs. 

1. "Well ! it is now puhlique, and you wil stand for your 
priviledges wee know ; to read, and censure. Do so, but buy 
it first. That doth best commend a Boohe, the stationer 
saies." — Old Preface, 1 623. 

II. Mi-me'-sis, or imitating the mode of pronouncing in the spelling. 
(See Imitation, p. 185.) 

2. Arrah ! now, yer Honor ! and isn't it meself will be 
after spaking to my ould man anent it ? 



432 FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY — SYNTAX. 

Mimesis is also applied to such words, as imitate certain sounds, or 
motions, which they name ; as, shrilly wJioop, snarl, glide, 

3. The sharp crack of the rifle, the twang of the bow- 
string, and the whoop of the savage are heard no more. 

6. Figures of Etymology arise from changing the 
usual forms of words. 

I. A-phcer'-e-sis, or taking away the initial letter of words ; as, Against, 

^neath, for against, beneath. 

II. Sijn'-co-pe, or droiipip-g middle letters; as, adm'r, for adminis- 
fi\ifor. 

III. A-poc/-o-pe, or dropping final letters ; a>, tlio', for tJiough. 

IV. Pros^ -thesis, or prehxing letters ; as, adown, bestrown, for dowrif 
strown. 

Y. Tme'-sis, or inserting a word between the parts- of a compound; 
a<, On ivhich side so'^ver. 

Yl. Par-a-go'-ge, or annexing letters ; as, deary, Jirstly, for dear^ 
frst. 

VII. Di-cer'-e-sis, or separating two vowels ; as, cooperate. 
VIII. Syn-cer'-e-sis, or bringing two syllables into one; as, mayst, 
coiddst, for mayest, couldtst. 

7. Figures of Syntax^ or deviations from common 
modes of using words in sentences. 

I. El-lip'-sis, or contraction of sentences, as shown in the Rhetorical 
Analysis ; hence, a contracted sentence is said to be Elliptical, or to be 
an Elliptical Expression. 

II. Plt-o-nasm, or the introduction of .superfluous words. These 
are sometimes called Tautological Expressions. They may be used in 
explaining, and also under the influence of excitement; hence, most 
Explanations are Pleonasms. 

4. He, that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

5. There shall not be left one stone upon another, that shall 
not he thrown down, 

III. Hy-per'-ba-ton, or a transposition of words. 

6. Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, Mm declare I 
unto you. 

7. From the centre all round to the sea, 
I'm lord of the fowl and the brute. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX — CAPITALS. 423 

IV. Syl-lep'-sis, or the agreement between words, when used in a 
figurative sense, different from their literal use. 

8. Wliile Evening draws her crimson curtain round. 

9. Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and 
preached Christ unto them. 

V. En-aV-la-ge is the use of one form, or modification of a word in- 
stead of another belonging to the same word; as, when we is used for 
I ; you for thou. 

It also includes several instances, which should be condemned as un- 
grammatical, and would be, if they were not found in certain writings. 
It is also used as a poetic license. 

10. "I done it;" meaning, I did it. A very common 
error. 

11. "What is writ is writ ;" for, What is written is written, 

12. " Speak, tell me quick f' for, Speak, tell me quickly, 

13. ^'Slow, through the churchyard path we saw him borne." 

14. " Heaven did a recompense as largely send:" — 

By poetic license, slow is used for slowly ; largely., for large. 



Part n. Rhetorical Figures. 

1. A Rhetorical Figure is an ideal., used either with the 
subject of narration^ or in the place of it^ in order that the nar- 
ration shall he more pleasing and attractive. 

Note I. The ideal, for which the Figure is substituted, is called 
the Primary Pairt of the Figure. 

Examples. 

1. Words fitly spoken are like apples of gold in pictures 
of silver. 

In this example, the rhetorical figure^ apples of gold in pictures of 
silver, is used with the subject of narration, words fitly spoken, as its 
primary part. 

2. His daughter was the light of his eyes and the joy of 
his soul. 



424 EHETOEICAL COMPOSITIOK. 

In this example, the rhetorical figures^ joy, light are used instead of 
daughter, the real subject of narration, as its primary part. 

Note II. Rhetorical Figures are sometimes called the Flowers of 
Rhetoric; because, thej attract us to language, as flowers attract us 
to the studj and cultivation of the plants that produce them. 

3. Language, according to its use of Figures^ is di- 
vided into two kinds; namely, Plain^ and Figurative 
Language. 

3. Plain Language directly expresses the thouglit 
itself. It is the language of ordinary business state- 
ments, of common narrative, of the sciences, and of 
the highest passions and emotions. 

1. Ordinary Business. A sells B $500 worth of goods, pay- 
able at the end of six months. 

2. Common Narrative. The names of some of the largest 
treeSj and the principal grains have. been received from the 
Saxons. Among these we may mention the oak, beech, ash, 
and maple. 

3. Strong Passion. " Banished from Rome ! What's ban- 
ished, but set free from daily contact of the things I loathe I"" 

4. Strong Emotions. " I am Joseph ; doth my father yet 

live r 

5. Emotion of Sublimity. God said, " let there be light \ 
and there was light." 

6. " He spoke, and it was done : he commanded and it 
stood fast." 

4. Figurative Language expresses thoughts by com- 
paringj or associating them with other thoughts or 
ideas. It is the language of feeling, except in state- 
ments of the strongest passions and emotions ; hence^ 
it is used in animated narration, in oratory, and es- 
pecially in poetry. 

The Figures of Rhetoric are sometimes called Tropes^ from 
a Greek word signifying to turn, because the meaning or use 
of the word is turned from its primary, or first meaning. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 42."!' 

7. "I am an aged hemlock. The storms of a hundred 
winters have whistled through my branches." 

Example seventh is an extract from the speech of an aged Indian chief. 
In phiin language, it would be ; I am an aged man. The storms of a 
hundred years have whistled around me. By comparing himself to 
an aged hemlock, other ideas are at once brought, to mind, which not 
only please us by their variety, but assist the narration ; and, finally, 
enable us to retain the whole expression. 

5. Figurative Language has its origin in that part 
of man's mental constitution, which compares and as- 
sociates the attributes and properties of things while 
imagining and reflecting. 

Writers usually ascribe the origin of Figurative Language 
to a necessity arising from the want of words in the earlier 
developments of the language itself. The subsequent use of 
figures they ascribe to a discovery of the convenience and 
the pleasure afforded by them. We would as soon ascribe 
the origin and the subsequent use of breathing and of eating 
to the same causes. It seems to us perfectly natural that 
mankind should speak as tfiey think; and no species of think- 
ing is more natural than that, which gives birth to figurative 
language. Because things and their properties in so many 
ways are constantly suggesting other things and their prop- 
erties. 

In Chapter VL, we have shown the constitution of the 
human mind to be such, that it must begin to learn through 
the aid of the senses and external things ; and, also, that the 
knowledge thus gained, together with a knowledge of them- 
selves, becomes the elements, from which the mental faculties 
deduce that higher kind of knowledge, which we have called 
the abstract, or supersensuous ; and we have also shown that 
in this tendency of the mind to compare, associate, and deduce, 
Figurative Language has its origin. This statement will ex- 
plain what a certain writer on this subject means, when he 
says ; " In very many occasions, they [figures] are both the 
most natural, and the most common method of expressing our 
sentiments. It is impossible to compose any discourse with 



426 FIGITRFS .AND TFI0UGFT8. 

out using them often ; nay, there are few sentences of any 
length, in which some expression or other, that may be termed 
a figure, does not occur. The fact shows that they are to be 
accounted a part of that language which nature dictates to 
man. They are not the inventions of the schools, nor the 
mere product of study ; on the contrary, the most illiterate 
speak in figures, as often as the most learned. [He might 
have said oftenerr^ Whenever the imaginations of the vul- 
gar are much awakened, or their passions inflamed against one 
another, they will pour forth a torrent of figurative language 
as forcible as could be employed by the most artificial de- 
claimer." Figures, then, are the natural language of imagin- 
ation and of feeling. 

6. Figures should be used as the accompaniment 
only, never in the place of thoughts. 

Figures are only the accessories ; the means by which 
thought is rendered more intelligible and more attractive. 
They are to the thought what dress and culture are to the 
body ; not to take its place, but to take place in connection 
with it and as an appendage of it. While the figure adorns 
the thought and adds to its comeliness, it is the thought, that 
gives the basis of value to the whole ; the former is but the 
guinea's stamp, the latter is the gold which gives it currency. 
Our common-place thoughts are beneath figures ; our noblest 
and sublimest are above them ; the former are unworthy of 
figures ; the value of the latter is recognised at sight and 
therefore does not need them. It is only those that require 
more attraction than what they possess in themselves, and are 
worthy of it, which require and admit figures. I utter a plain 
truth when I say, " God, from mankind, hides the knowledge 
of all events except the present," but how much more agree- 
ably and impressively the same is told and enforced by the 
aid of a very simple figure ; — 

"Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
All, but the page, prescribed their present state." 



FIGURES. 427 

The Great Teacher used figures freely m his instructions, 
an example of which is his lesson at the well of Samaria, 
whose water he made the type of " that water, which I shall 
give him.' The lily, the seed-time, the harvest ; all seasons 
and all occasions, furnished him the means wherewith to illus- 
trate and enforce his teachings, and ever afterward to be the 
monitors, by which they should be recalled. It was in refer- 
ence to his example in this respect, that we gave the rule for 
the use of Comparisons. 

Sensible objects and their properties are the most familiar 
to us, and, therefore, when abstract ideas are presented, it is 
always by comparison with sensible objects. Thus the process 
of acquiring primary knowledge is called the synthetic from 
its analogy to the process of building. For the same reason 
we speak of mental and moral operations and their effects in 
the same terms, which we employ for what we conceive to be 
similar in objects of sense ; as, a hard heart, a great intellect, 
an acute mind, a dull comprehension. We are inflamed by 
passion, warmed by love, and melted by grief. It is easy to 
say that the Roman state was the most prosperous and en- 
joyed the greatest reputation under Augustus ; and that 
during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, English literature 
reached a high development, and gained greatly in reputa- 
tion ; but instead of using plain language, we compare the 
Roman state to a tree and the literature of England to the 
Roman state, when we say, " The Roman state flourished 
most under Augustus ; and during Elizabeth's reign was the 
Augustan age of English literature." 

The effect of this use of terms is to save an increase in 
the number of words, and the consequent trouble of learning 
their definitions ; and it also enables us to join or associate 
our knowledge with sensible objects and their properties and 
thus to be reminded of it by that, which we have called local 
or incidental association. Indeed, every one must have 
learned from the experience of childhood, that oftentimes the 
figure alone was understood and retained, while that, which 
it typified was not known until years afterward, and even 



-1-28 USE OF FIGURES. 

then was recalled and explained by the figure. There is no 
place where a proper admixture of figurative language would 
be productive of more good results^ than in the daily school ; 
and yet it is not usually found in the schools even in the 
proportions, in which it is used in the daily walks of life. 
We too easily forget, that it is the language of nature, and 
'hence is peculiarly fitted for the use of learners. 

Dr. Blair mentions four reasons why figures, or tropes 
contribute to the beauty and grace of language ; to which we 
would add, and to the value of language also. 

'•^First, They enrich language, and render it more copious. 
By their means, words and phrases are multiplied for ex- 
pressing all sorts of ideas ; for describing even the minutest 
differences; the nicest shades and colors of thought; which 
no language could possibly do by proper words alone, without 
assistance from tropes. 

'^ Second, They bestow dignity upon style. The familiar- 
ity of common words, to which our ears are much accustomed, 
tends to degrade style. When we want to adapt our lan- 
guage to the tone of an elevated subject, we should be greatly 
at a loss, if we could not borrow assistance from figures ; 
which, properly employed, have a similar effect on language, 
with what is produced by the rich and splendid dress of a 
person of rank; to create respect, and to give an air of 
magnificence to him who wears it. Assistance of this kind, 
is often needed in prose compositions ; but poetry could not 
subsist without it. Hence, figures form the constant language 
of poetry. To say, that ' the sun rises,* is trite and common ; 
but it becomes a magnificent image when expressed, as Mr. 
Thomson has done : — 

' But yonder comes the powerful king of day, 
Eejoicing in the east/ 

To say, that ' all men are subject alike to death,' presents 
only a vulgar idea ; but it rises and fills the imagination, 
when painted thus by Horace ; — 

' With equal pace, impartial fate 
Knocks at the palace, as the cottage gate.* 



USE OF FIGURES. 429 

^^ Third, Figures give us the pleasure of enjoying two ob- 
jects presented together to our view, without confusion ; the 
principal idea, which is the subject of the discourse, along 
with its accessory, which gives it the figurative dress. We 
see one thing in another, as Aristotle expresses it ; which is 
always agreeable to the mind. For there is nothing with 
which the fancy is more delighted, than with comparisons, 
and resemblances of objects ; and all tropes are founded upon 
some relation or analogy between one thing and another. 
When, for instance, in place of ' youth,' I say the ' morning 
of life ;' the fancy is immediately entertained with all the 
resembling circumstances which presently occur between these 
two objects. At one moment, I have in my eye a certain 
period of human life, and a certain time of the day, so related 
to each other, that the imagination plays between them with 
pleasure, and contemplates two similar objects, in one view, 
without embarrassment or confusion. 

"Fourth. Figures are attended with this farther advantage 
of giving us frequently a much clearer and more striking 
view of the principal object, than we could have of it were 
it expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory 
idea. This is, indeed, their principal advantage, in virtue of 
which, they are very properly said to illustrate a subject, or 
to throw a light upon it. For they exhibit the object, on 
which they are employed, in a picturesque form ; they can 
render an abstract conception, in some degree, an object of 
sense ; they surround it with such circumstances, as enable 
the mind to lay hold of it steadily, and to contemplate it fully. 
' Those persons,' says one, ' who gain the hearts of most peo- 
ple, who are chosen as the companions of their softer hours^ 
and their reliefs from anxiety and care, are seldom persons 
of shining qualities, or strong virtues : it is rather the soft 
green of the soul, on which we rest our eyes, that are fa- 
tigued with beholding more glaring objects.' Here, by a 
happy allusion to a color, the whole conception is conveyed 
clear and strong to the mind in one word. 



430 TROPES — -FIGURES OF THOUGHT. 

" By a well chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and 
the impression of a truth upon the mind made more lively 
and forcible than it would otherwise be. As in the following 
illustration of Dr. Young's : ' When we dip too deep in pleas- 
ure, we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and 
noxious ;' or in this, 'A heart boiling with violent passions, 
will always send up infatuating fumes to the head.' An 
image that presents so much congruity between a moral and 
a sensible idea, serves like an argument from analogy, to en- 
force what the other asserts, and to induce belief" 

7. Figures are sometimes divided into Tropes or 
Figures of words ^ and Figures of thought. 

8* A Trope ^ or Figure of words ^ is one in which 
the figure depends on the use of a certain word or 
words ; so that, if the latter be changed, the figure 
will be destroyed ; thus — 

8. Farewell, ye green fields. 

If this example be changed as follows, it becomes plain language ; 
Farewell to the green fields. So, if rally and bleed in the following 
example be changed to rallied and bled, the figure will be destroyed. 

9. " They rally, they bleed for their kingdom and crown." 
They rallied, they hied for their kingdom and crown. 

9. Figures of thought exist in the sentiment ; they 
do not depend upon a particular word or words, and 
hence may be translated from one expression, or lan- 
guage, to another. 

l(j. Ye stars, which are the poetry of Heaven! 
11. ''A'o the clear light upon the holy candlestick, so is the 
beauty of the face in ripe age." 

ll>. We shall now proceed to discuss figures accord- 
ing as we consider them to have originated in com- 
parison, or in association, or to be the direct result of 
the imagination. 



COMPARISON — SIMILE. 431 



Figures of Comparison. 

1 . The figures, which originate in comparison^ are 
Simile^ Metaphor^ Antithesis^ Interrogation^ Irony ^ 
Allusion^ and Allegory, 

2, When these figures are used to explain, or sim 
plify a subject, they are called Explanatory Similes ; 
as — 

1. Bad books are like pirates, sailing under false colors in 
every sea, and delighting in the conquest and plunder of 
every thing precious. 

2. The wheel and axle are the same in principle as the 
lever; the radius of the wheel being the longer, and that of 
the axle the shorter arm. 

This kind of comparison is the one for which the rule for the use of 
comparisons is mainly intended. 

3. When these figures are used mainly for ornament, 
or to please by beautifying the narration, they are 
called Embellishing Similes, 

3. " Science like the sun enlightens every object on which 
it shines." 

4. ^' Like the gale, that sighs along 

Beds of oriental flowers. 
Is the grateful breath of song, 

That once was heard in happier hours." 

5. " The last glimpse you catch of the soul, she is gloriously 
entering the harbor, the haven of eternal rest ; yea, you see 
her like a star, that in the morning of eternity fades into the 
light of heaven." — Gheever, 

4. Simile is a comparison between two or more ob- 
jects, which have some resemblance. It is shown by 
the connectors, as,, like,, thus,, so^ &c. 



432 COMPARISON — SIMILE — METAPHOR. 

6. Tn the multitude of words there wanteth not sin, so in 
the multitude of text-books, and so in our social relations. 

5. Similes must be taken from objects of a different 
class, yet having some relation to that, which is to be 
explained or embellished. 

We may compare things of the same kind, but when we 
do so, it is to find their points of difference. If I say, Cice- 
ro's oratory was like that of Demosthenes, I must mean that 
their styles of oratory were the same, that is identical; but if 
I show how they may be distinguished, then I am finding 
differences instead of similarities. 

6. The object to which we compare, should always 
be more familiar than that which is compared. 

This is according to the rule requiring the definition to be more fa- 
miliar than the term defined. 

7. Similes should be made with such objects as 
will best suggest the mental feelings which we wish 
to produce. 

If we wish to ennoble, to elicit admiration, or win respect, 
our comparisons must be chosen from noble, admirable, and 
honorable sources ; if we wish to stigmatize or degrade, a 
choice of comparisons should be made which will produce 
that effect. 

7. Eloquence, to produce her full effect, should start from 
the head of the orator, as Minerva from the brain of Jupiter, 
completely armed and equipped. 

8. Some men's eloquence, like the web of the spider, 
comes from the stomach rather than from the head. 

8. A Metaphor is a figure whose terms are applied 
directly to that which is compared ; the words showing 
comparison being omitted ; as — 

9. '• The world is a stage ; the men and women are merely 
players." 



COMPARISON — METAPHOR. 433 

In this example we have the world compared to a stage, not by the 
words of comparison as in the simile, but by applying the term stage 
directly to the part named by world. This example becomes a simile 
by inserting a word to show the comparison ; as — 

The world is like a stage. 

The Metaphor is a more vivid and lively figure than the Simile, be- 
cause it applies the name at once to the object, instead of compelling 
the reader or hearer to make the comparison for himself; in all lan- 
guages the Metaphor has always been a favorite, and is used more than 
any or perhaps all of the other figures. 

9. The Metaphor may be distinguished from all 
other figures by this test ; if taken literally^ it always 
asserts an untruth, 

10. Human life is a shadow. 

11. "A faithful minister is a pillar of state." 

12. " Thou, on whose burning tongue, truth, peace, and 
freedom hung." 

Taken literally, nothing is more untrue than that life is a shadow, or 
that any man is a pillar; and a burning tongue must be an uncomfort- 
able member in any mouth. 

Disputants often take advantage of this to render the plea of the op- 
posite party ridiculous. 

10. Two, or more Metaphors, used in the place of 
one, form a Mixed Metaphor, These should be care- 
fully avoided, because they are untrue to nature. 

13. The storms of adversity should never be allowed to 
outweigh the heart's natural affections. 

We do not estimate storms nor the affections by weight; hence, we 
can form no idea of them by this standard, much less of the process of 
weighing them. Storms cool, repress, extinguish, &c. ; the affections 
warm, burn, glow ; hence we may speak of the storms of adversity in 
regard to the affections, as of the effect of natural storms on flames. 

The storms of adversity should never be allowed to extinguish the 
heart's natural affections. 

14. We take up arms against a sea of troubles. 

We had better lay down our arms in this case, and take to building 
a dike, or sea-wall. 
19 



434 COMPARISON — ANTITHESIS. 

1 1 . The best test of a metaphor's correctness or 
truthfulness to nature, is to imagine how it would ap- 
pear if drawn as a picture. 

15. '' Delusive gold, a smiling fiend thou art, 

Sev'ring those bands, that Death alone should part." 

It is not difficult to imagine a smiling fiend doing the work of Death, 
hence we see that this Metaphor is true to nature. 

The following is supposed to be the language of a mother, whose 
son had just followed his father to the wars. 

1 6. " Now from my fond embrace by tempest torn, 

Our other column of the state is borne. 
Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent." 

One column of the state had been carried off before the other, which 
did not come back to ask consent. Try to imagine a picture of it. 

IS. Antithesis is a comparison to find differences 
of ideas, and is denoted by such connectives as, buty 
nor J or^ more^ than^ in this^ on the other ^ &c. It is 
sometimes called comparison by Contrast, or Opposi- 
tion^ and is directly opposed to Simile, or Comparison 
by Resemblance. 

17. '^The king's wrath is as the roaring of a lion, but his 
favor is as dew upon the grass." 

18. " Charles I. reminds us more of some mock king in 8 
farce, than a real one on the theatre of history." 

13. Antithesis always requires at least two full 
statements and, hence, moves slowly, or formally. This 
fits it for contrasting objects, or thoughts; especially 
for the purposes of instruction ; for ceremony ; for sat- 
ire, or ridicule ; and for wit, or humor, because it al- 
lows the mind time to contemplate both statements. 

19. The sun shines with his own, while ihe moon shines 
with reflected h'ght. 

20. Language performs more than it promises ; Metaphys- 
ics promises more than it performs. 



COMPARISON — IRONY. 435 

21. " Cleo, Nay, pray you, seek no color for your going, 

But bid farewell, and go, when you sued staying, 

Then was the time for w^ords ; No going then ; — 

Eternity was in our lips and eyes, 

Bliss in our brow's bent ; none of our parts so poor; 

But was a race of heaven ; They are so still, 

Or thou, the greatest soldier of the world, 

Art turned the greatest liar." 

22. The whirlwind in its career of destruction may tear up 
the oak, rend the rock from the mountain's side, and lay 
prostrate the forest; but the calm will follow, and the violet 
will spring up in its path. 

14. Irony is a species of Antithesis in which the 
contrast is shown by using terms signifying the very 
opposite of what we mean ; as — 

23. "A Daniel, still say I ; a second Daniel I 

I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word." 

24. You have cared for them? Yes, as the hawk for the 
starling ; as the wolf for the tender lamb ! 

Irony and Metaphor are alike in not requiring the aid of 
connectives because they apply the figurative terms directly 
to the primary part ; they are unlike, in that the former is a 
comparison by contrast, while the latter is a comparison by 
resemblance. 

15. Irony is more commonly known as Satire^ 
Ridicule^ and, when accompanied by mimicry, as 
Mockery, 

25. Satire, " We hate all fools these upstarts say, 

From which most plainly it appears. 
Their other faults be what they may, 
Self-love is not a fault of theirs." 

26. Mockery, " Elijah mocked them, and said, ' Cry aloud ; 
for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he 
is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be 
awaked.' *' 



■rob COMPARISON — ALLUSION. 

1®. Inter rogation is a contrast expressed in the 
form of a question, to which no answer is expected. 
When in the direct form this figure becomes irony. 

27. A Daniel, say you, a second Daniel? 

28. Glendower, I can call spirits from the vasty deep. 
Hotspur, Why, so can I, so can any man ; 

But will they come, when you do call for them ? 

Interrogation is a lively and strong mode of presenting a 
statement. In the Scriptures, it is frequently used. 

29. " Shall I and thy mother and thy brethren indeed 
come to bow down ourselves to thee to the earth ?" 

If. Allusion is a reference to some author by using 
a well known saying ; or to some scientific fact in such 
a v\^ay as to suggest it. 

18. Allusions are named according to the subjects, 
to which the reference is made ; Scriptural^ historical^ 
classical^ scientific^ professional, &c. 

80. Scriptural Allusion. " Well, might the good man say, 
' Our Father, which art in heaven,' for he felt it, and all man- 
kind were his brethren." 

31. " The loudest notes of triumph or conquest will be silent 
in the grave ; the wicked, wherever active, ' will cease from 
troubling,' and the weary, wherever suffering, 'will be at rest."' 

Scriptural allusions, when properly introduced, are in- 
structive and pleasing ; but it is always in bad taste to in- 
troduce them for light and trifling purposes. 

32. Historical, Resolving not to be the slave of intemper- 
ance is a " declaration of individual right ;" and signing the 
pledge is " consenting to the articles of the confederation." 

33. Classical. To protect himself from all the assaults of 
temptation, the earthly pilgrim needs the armor of Achilles, 
and the eyes of Argus. 

34. Poetical, Who does not feel that the " Thanatopsis," 
" The Psalm of life," " Home, sweet home," and other such 



COMPARISON — ALLEGORY. 4-P)7 

gems of poetry, ^'^I'^J entitle their authors to be ranked 
among the poets of the age ? 

35. MathematicaL We make progress intellectually in the 
direct ratio of our mental activity. 

36. Professional, "The sorrow for the dead is the only 
sorrow, from which we refuse to be divorced. Every other 
wound we seek to heal — Who would root out such a sorrow 
from the heart?'* 

19. An Allegory is a figure, in which the figurative 
or secondary part only is expressed ; the meaning being 
left to be supplied by the reader, or hearer. 

20. The Allegory is used for embellishment ; for 
instruction^ as in parables, and fables ; and for amuse 
ment^ as in riddles, conundrums, &c. 

37. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast 
cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the 
land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it; and 
the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent 
out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. 
Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, so that all 
they which pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of 
the wood doth waste it ; and the wild beast of the field doth 
devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts ; look 
down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine !" (Ps. 80.) 

Some define the Allegory as a continued Metaphor, but 
this is manifestly wrong; metaphor names both parts and 
asserts that the primary is something, which it only resembles ; 
allegory names the secondary part only, leaving the primary 
to the imagination, or reflection of the one addressed. 

The Scripture Parables furnish a number of fine allegories 
used for instruction ; Bunyan^s Pilgrim^ s Progress is an un- 
usually fine allegory ; Fables are allegories, in which the 
words and actions of men are attributed to beasts and inani- 
mate things ; while the moral is the literal, or primary part. 



438 ASSOCIATION — CLIMAX. 



Figures op Association. 



I . The Figures, which originate in Association, aro 
Enumeration^ Climax, Metonomy, Synecdoche, Imitor 
tion, Omission, Repetition, and Sorites, 

S, Enumeration or Pleonasm consists in giving a list 
of particulars for the purpose of enabling the mind to 
form a more perfect idea of the object described. 

1. The entire population turned out to witness the im- 
posing ceremony ; there were the aged, the middle-aged, the 
young ; old men and maidens, mothers and sons ; the high and 
the low, the rich and the poor. 

All that follows the word ceremony is an Enumeration of the partic- 
ulars implied in the word population. 

S. When this figure is used in a discourse, or in the 
analysis of a science, it is called Division, 

2. The sounds of words may be employed for representing 
three classes of objects ; first, other sounds ; secondly, mo- 
tion ; and thirdly, the emotions and passions. 

3. Philosophy is divided into three kinds ; Natural, Men- 
tal, and Moral. 

4. Climax is an enumeration of particulars arranged 
so as to increase in importance to the last. When the 
particulars decrease in importance to the last, it is 
called an Anti-climax, 

4. Benevolence is a duty which I owe to myself, to my 
neighbors, to all mankind, and to God. 

5. " Yet there is a band of human beings on board that 
weather-beaten vessel, and they have voluntarily come to this 
savage coast to spend the rest of their lives, and to die there. 
Eight thousand miles they have struggled across the ocean^ 
fem a land of plenty and comfort, from their own beloved 



METONOMY — SYNECDOCHE. 439 

country, from their homes, firesides, friends, to gather around 
an altar to God, in the winter, in the wilderness ! What 
does it all mean ? It marks to a noble mind, the invaluable 
blessedness of freedom to worship God." — Cheever, 

5. Metonomy is applying the name of one object to 
another incidentally, or naturally associated with it ; 
as, cause and effect, container and the thing contained, 
sign and what is signified, &c. 

6. Cause and Effect, Gray hairs should be respected. 

7. Whom the sword of the Greeks had spared. 

Gray hairs, the effect of old age ; sword, the weapon of the Greeks. 

8. Container for the Thing contained. His money-bags 
are his idols. 

9. Sign for what is signified. We met them at the Pewter 
Mug. 

10. No sleep till morn w^hen Youth and Pleasure meet. 

6. Spnecdoche is a figure in which more, or less 
than what is really meant is named ; as, a part for the 
whole, the whole for a part. 

11. This town contains about three thousand souls. 
Here souls, a part, is put for the whole. 

12. All hands unmoor the eager captain cries ; — 
Here hands is taken for the whole man. 

13. Three hundred head of cattle remained. 

Pope speaks of "a hundred head of Aristotle's friends." 
A polite way of calling them stupid beasts. 

7. A Synecdoche, in which a general term is used 
for a particular, is called Antonomasia ; as, a great 
orator is called the Cicero of his age. 

8. When from modesty, or from arrogance, many is 
put for one, the Synecdoche is called Communication ; 
as, We think it our duty ; for / think it my duty. 

9. Sometimes from fear of woundino; another's sen- 



440 IMITATION — OMISSION — SORITES. 

sibilities, less is said^ than is really meant ; this Synec- 
doche is called Litotes^ or Extenuation, 

14. I can not approve your choice ; that is, I condemn it. 

15. I do not say that this will not pain you. 

1©. A Synecdoche, used to soften the annunciation 
of a painful truth, is called Euphemism, 

16. "Asleep in Jesus, blessed sleep !" He fell asleep. 

1 1 . Imitation is a figure, in which the words imi- 
tate the sound of the thing named ; as, hiss^ whir^ 
biizz^ bubble,) whoop, 

17. " When Ajax strives some rock's huge weight to throw, 

The line too labors, and the words move slow ; 

Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain ; [main," 

Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the 

12. Omission^ or Paralipsis is the pretended omis- 
sion of what one is actually narrating. 

18. I need not mention her ruined palaces, her desecrated 
temples, her polluted shrines ; it is enough to say, when 
Eoman virtue was no more, Rome fell. 

19. " Not to speak of that eye, which glances through all 
disguises, and beholds every thing, as in the splendor of noon, 
— such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection, even 
by men." 

13. Repetition is a kind of pleonasm, in which the 
same words are repeated. 

20. "Our country; our whole country; and nothing but 
our country." 

14. Sorites is a succession of statements, in which 
the First Object of the first statement becomes the sub- 
ject of the next, and so on. 

21. "My son rules his mother; his mother rules me; I 
rule the Athenians ; the Athenians rule Greece ; Greece rules 
Europe ; Europe rules the whole earth ; therefore my son 
rules the whole earth." 



IMAGINATION — VISION. 441 



Figures of the Imagination. 

1. The figures, resulting from imagination^ are 
Exclamation^ Vision^ Personification^ Apostrophe^ and 
Hyperbole. 

Q, Exclamation is a figurative expression prompted 
by feelings aroused by a vivid imagination ; as — 

1. How sinks his soul ! What black despair, what horror 
Oils his heart ! 

2. What I shall he scourge ! bind \ and put to death — the 
mfamous death of the cross — a Roman citizen ! 

3. Vision is a figure, in which what is past, future, 
o. iistant, is described as present. 

»3. "I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of 
the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved 
in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered 
beaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined 
country." 

4. " For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight ; 

And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight.'' 

5. " 'Tis morn, but scarce yon lurid sun 

Can pierce the war-clouds rolling dun, 
Where furious Frank and fiery Hun 
Shout in their sulphurous panoply." 

4:. Personification is a figure, in which inanimate 
objects are represented ; as, living, acting, &c. 

6. " Hail, smiling morn, that tips the hills with gold !" 

5. There are three kinds or degrees of Personifica- 
tion ; firsts when only the properties of the living aro 
attributed to inanimate objects ; as — 

7. The glad morning, the joyous sunshine, the pleasant 
fields, are only a small part of his bounties. 

19* 



4-12 PERSONIFICATION — APOSTROPHE. 

Second, When the actions, or the properties and ac- 
tions of the living are attributed to the inanimate ; as, 

8. " Yes, the year is growing old 

And his eje is pale and bleared ! 
Death with frosty hand and cold 
Plucks the old man by the beard, sorely — sorely!" 

Third, When the inanimate are represented as speak- 
ing, or as listening to us ; as — 

9. " The earth gave signs of gratulations, and each hill- 
Joyous the birds, fresh gales and gentle airs 
Whispered it to the woods, and from their wings 
Flung rose, flung odor from the spicy shrub — ^" 

10. " Lo !" cries the spirit of the cloud, " how I 

Compel the wind to bear me on its wings — " 

@, Apostrophe is a figure, in which an address is 
made to some personified object, or to some absent ptT- 
son, or to some invisible being, as if present. 

11. "Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star 

In his steep course? So long, he seems to pause 
On thy bald, awful head, O Sovereign Blanc !" 

12. "But, alas! you are not all here I Time and the 
sand have thinned your ranks. Prescott, Putnam, Stark, 
Brooks, Read, Pomeroy, Bridge ! Our eyes seek for you in 
vain amid this broken band. You are gathered to your fa- 
thers, and live only to your country in her grateful remem- 
brance and your own bright example !" — Webster. 

13. "He paused a moment, and then broke forth; — 
' Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty ! 
In wisdom hast thou made them all. Who would not fear 
thee, O Lord, and glorify thy name, for thou only art holy?'" 

7 , Hyperbole^ or Exaggeration is ascribing more 
than natural attributes, or actions, to objects ; as. It is 
whiter than snow ; he is svnfter than the eagle, &c. 



HYPERBOLE — GENERAL RULES. 443 

When such statements are made they do not surprise us, 
because they are so common. We take them at a sufficient 
discount to realize their true value. If we are told that every- 
body was at the church, lecture, or concert, on some particu 
lar occasion, we understand that a large number of persons 
were present. 

8 . Hyperboles are divided into two kinds ; Hyper 
boles of passion^ and Hyperboles of description. 

9. An Hyperbole of passion is one used by a person 
under the influence of passion ; while the Hyperbole 
of description is used by one, who describes what he 
has seen, or witnessed. 

The former is naturally the stronger, since we expect one 
to be more affected by what is felt than by what is seen. 
Again, while the former is used by any, or all excited per- 
sons, the latter is used by persons of excitable temperaments, 
and vivid imaginations. 

The following Hyperbole of passion is in good taste, and a very beau- 
tiful figure ; but if uttered by a second party and thus changed to an 
Hyperbole of description, would be insufferably bombastic ; — 

14. " O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fount- 
ain of tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain 
of the daughter of my people." 



General Rules for Figures. 

1. Beside the special directions given under each 
of the figures, the following General Rules must be 
observed. 

Rule First. Figures must rise from the subject 
naturally. 

This they will do, whenever they have points, which admi^ 



4:4,4: GENERAL RULES FOR FIGURES. 

of comparison, or association, or when they originate in feel- 
ings, or emotions excited by the subject ; hence — 
* First If they be sought and studied, figures will appear 
to be stiff and formal and, of course, unnatural. 

L " I was glad that day ; 

The June was in me, with its nxultitudes 
Of nightingales all singing in the dark, 
And rosebuds reddening where the calyx split." — Aurora Leigh. 

2. " Death's black dust, being blown 

Infiltrated through every secret fold 

Of this sealed letter by a puff of fate, 

Dried up for ever the fresh-written ink, 

Annulled the gift, disutilized the grace, 

And left these fragments !" Aurora Leigh. 

Second, If they be unnatural, or have been studied, they 
will detract from the beauty of composition. Studied and 
unnatural figures render a subject ridiculous, burlesque, oi 
bombastic, or even mere twaddle. 

3. Twaddle. ^' The stars struck dumb and washed away in dews 
Of golden glory, and the mountains steeped in divine languor I" 

Second Eule. Figures must be appropriate to the 
subject. 

Figures are appropriate when they accomplish the purpose 
for which they are used ; and they may be used to dignify, or 
to demean. 

First, When used to dignify, they must be drawn from a 
subject more dignified than the primary and yet not so far 
above as to eclipse it. 

4. Human law can not be as perfect as the Divine law, because it 
is both made and administered by fallible beings. 

5. Human like Divine laws aim at the perfection of justice. 

In the former example, human law is dignified by comparing even 
its fallibility with the infallibility of the Divine; in the latter, it is 
eclipsed ; for how can the perfection of the human be favorably com- 
pared with that of the Divine. 

Second. When used to demean, or degrade, the figure must 
be drawn from something meaner than the primary. 



GKNKRAL RULES FOR FIGURES. 445 

6. *'As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman with- 
out discretion." 

Rule Third. Trite^ or worn-out figures^ should be 
avoided. 

Some figures have been so long in use, and have become 
so common-place that they neither illustrate, nor adorn. 

7. "My love is like the red, red rose." 

8. Her brow is fair as alabaster, her cheeks are red as roses, and hor 
teeth are as white as milk. 

Remember ; novelty is a great part of what is pleasing in 
figures. 

Rule Fourth. Figures should not be drawn from 
subjects whose relations to the primary parts are either 
faint ^ or not generally known, 

A figure can explain and embellish only as it brings to 
mind familiar ideas ; figures confuse and annoy us, when 
they suggest relations which we do not perceive, or ideas 
which are not familiar. 

9. " The holy book like the eighth sphere doth shine." 

Rule Fifth. Figures should not be pursued too far. 

Nothing is more insufferably dull and stupid than the viola- 
tions of this rule. It is like listening to a detailed descrip- 
tion of another person's dress. We should presume that the 
hearer, or reader will supply some of the particulars, after 
the attention has once been aroused by the figure. 

10. " The tackle of my heart is cracked and burnt; 

And all the shrouds wherewith my life should sail 

Are turned to one thread, one little hair: 

My heart hath one poor string to stay it by, 

Which holds till thy news be uttered." Shahspeare. 

Sixth Rule. Figurative and Plain language should 
not be mixed in the same period. 

That is, the sentences must not be so constructed that a 
part of each must be taken literally, while a part is taken 
figuratively. 



446 EXERCISE IN FIGURES. 

11. ''But up in groves Paradise full surely we shall see 

Our morning-glory beautiful twine round our dear Lord's knee." 

In example eleventh, we have a morning-glory in the groves of Para- 
dise ; a very good picture ; but who has ever seen, or wishes to see one 
twine round the knee of a person. This last is plain language. 

In addition to a careful study of Figurative Language, as 
given in this Work, every student should read attentively 
Blair's Lectures, and Kame's Elements of Criticism. In 
these, the teacher also may find a good variety of examples, 
and some fine specimens of criticism, which may he read and 
explained before the class. 



Exercise. 

In the following Exercise, the pupil will find examples, 
which it will be well for him to examine, and tell whether 
they belong to Plain or to Figurative Language, and if Fig- 
urative, to what Figure. 

1. Hail, then, all hail, thou fair morning of this fairest of the months! 

2. Till morning waked by the circling hours, 
With rosy hand unbarred the gates of light. 

3. While overhead the moon sits arbitress. 

4. Thy verse created like thy theme sublime, 

In number, weight, and measure, needs not rhyme. 

5. Your bodies may at last turn all to spirit; 
Improved by tract of time, and wingM ascend ethereal. 

6. Hypocrisy, the only evil that walks invisible. 

7. The morning stars sang together. 

8. The sky was clear and of the milky-cerulean of chrysoprase. 

9. The south wind stole suddenly back from the tropics, and found 
his flowery mistress asleep, and insensible to his kisses beneath her 
snowy mantle. 

10. There are moments in existence which comprise the power of 
years ; as thousands of roses are contained in a few drops of their 
essence. 

11. Life is real ! life is earnest! and the grave is not its goal. 

12. Old Gibblet was a perfect scarecrow to the small fry of the day. 

13. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy 
are deceitful. 

14. unexampled love ! love nowhere to be found less than divine ! 

15. He shall not die but live, and thou shalt save his soul alive. 



RHETOEICAL COMPOSITION. 447 



Part III. Rhetorical Composition. 

!The word, oonvposition,^ means the science 
<md art of putting together. 
Rhetorical Composition is a term 
applied to the science and art hy which the narrator expresses a 
thought and its prop&r mood in an appropriate manner. 

a. So far as language is concerned, Composition is a synthetic pro- 
cess, by which we construct sentences, paragraplis, chapters, and vol- 
umes ; either for the purpose of communication with our fellow-beings, 
or for our own improvement. In the Logical, Rhetorical, and Gram- 
matical Analyses, we have attempted to exhibit the nature and con- 
stitution of human knowledge, and of language, and also the relations, 
which they have to, as well as the influence, which they exert upon each 
other. In this Chapter, we shall endeavor to discuss certain proper- 
ties, and principles, which belong almost exclusively to Composition as 
a synthetic process, and to which, of course, we could barely allude in 
the previous analyses. But these properties and principles, in the syn- 
thetic course, become of primary importance ; because, in composing, 
we are obliged to use the knowledge, previously acquired, both for ar- 
ranging our thoughts properly, and for expressing them correctly. In 
the analytic stage, the student, for the greater part, is a recipient, a con- 
sumer ; but as a composer, he becomes a producer, and a contributor 
to the general stock. Now, in doing this, he is required to use lan- 
guage in a manner altogether different from that, in which he has previ- 
ously used it, and hence, obtains new views of its uses, and capabili- 
ties, and so gains that higher power, by which the human race is so 
wonderfully distinguished — the Use of Language. Nor should any 
suppose that exercises in both kinds of this twofold process are not 
equally necessary. By taking a machine in pieces, we may be enabled 
to comprehend the relation and fitness of its parts ; but it is only by 
attempting its construction, that we learn to select the proper, and the 
best materials, to fit each part for its peculiar use, and to give proper 
adaptation to the whole, so that it shall best fulfil its design. 

1 Composition, ition^ ; pos '■^pon -='pot^ putting; ccmi== con= syn, to- 
gether. 

Note. The student should now find the literal definitions of the terms oc- 
curring in Chap. Y., and YI. If, in doing this, more aid be needing than is fur- 
nished in Chap. lY., he may consult some Work, especially devoted to this subject ; 
as. Smith's Hand-Book of Etymology, Lynch's Etymology, and the Dictionary. 



443 QUALIFICATIONS FOR COMPOSING, 

S. In order to compose successfully, three things 
are necessary on the part of the writer, or speaker ; 
firsts Previous preparation ; second^ A willingness to 
work for success ; and third^ The possession of the or- 
dinary attributes of humanity. 

FiKST. Previous Preparation. The student should have definite 
ideas concerning knowledge, its different varieties, its modes of acquisi- 
tion, its reproduction ; and should be familiar with that part of the nom- 
enclature of mental science usually employed in connection with knowl- 
edge ; and lastly, should be familiar with the Logical, Khetorical, and 
Grammatical Analyses of Sentential Language. 

Second. A Willingness to work for Success. The student, who 
would become expert in expressing thought and feeling, must not sup- 
pose that this power can be developed without the exercise of all his 
faculties. He must have great faith in labor, as all the successful have 
had. He must feel, that "perseverance conquers all," and, that *' la- 
bor is worship." His task will become easier the more his labor is di- 
vided in a proper ratio between the hands, the head, and the heart. 

Third. The Possession of the ordinary Attributes of Humanity ; noth- 
ing more, nothing less. He must have sensations and perceptions of ob- 
jects similar to those, which others have of the same objects. He must 
remember and imagine as others remember and imagine ; that is, these 
acts must be of the same kind ; they may differ in degree. He must 
reason and judge as a human being ; and lastly, he must have human 
feelings. He must "Rejoice with them, that do rejoice, and weep with 
them, that weep." 

If any one possess these three essentials, let that one speak anCi 
write. "Practice makes perfect." Always observing the modes, in 
which good writers and speakers express themselves ; not with the dis- 
position to adopt unhesitatingly all, that may be found therein, but "to 
mark, learn, and inwardly digest," so that it shall become the food foi 
thought and farther growth. "Reading makes a full man ; conference 
makes a ready man ; writing, an exact man." 

But above all ; let every student remember and preserve his menta.1, 
as carefully as he should his physical individuality. As every human 
being can be distinguished from all the rest, and yet each exceedingly 
resembles all the others ; so, each composer [writer, or speaker] is en- 
titled to have and to preserve his own individualities, or peculiarities of 
thought, and modes of expressing it, which are known as his style ; 
only let them not be violations of any essential law of language, or of 
any long and well-established usage, which is in harmony with these 
essential laws. Be neither rash innovators, nor servile imitators. 



GENIUS — TASTE. 449 

I'he three Essentials for Composing are — 
First. To have something which is to be told. 
Second. To know how to tell it. 
Third. To stop when it has been told. 

3. We shall use the term Genius to name that de- 
velopment and discipline of the mental powers, which 
enable their possessor to think correctly in regard to a 
given subject ; to draw new truths from those already 
known — in short, to invent or originate. 

a. Some mean by Genius a natural and unaccountable mental de- . 
velopment, which enables its possessor to do, without application, that 
which, if accomplished at all by others, must be the result of labor. 
If there be such geniuses, they are manifestly exceptions to the great 
mass of mankind, and hence, not entitled to consideration in a work 
designed expressly for the generality, rather than for the exceptions. 
We venture to predict, that the number of geniuses, in our sense of the 
term, will increase in direct proportion as the constitution of the human 
mind, and the laws of its development come to be understood, and re- 
garded in teaching, as teaching itself comes to be regarded as a means 
of development, instead of being esteemed an end of labor. (See ex- 
tract, " Patience and Labor.") 

4. The mental act, which distinguishes the proper 
from the improper, the natural from the unnatural, the 
true, the fitting, and the agreeable, from the untrue, 
the unfitting, and the disagreeable, is called Taste, 

a. Taste is here used figuratively, and includes ; first, the state of 
mental development ; and, second, the harmonious action of the mental 
powers. It includes all that we have said concerning mental develop- 
ment in Chapter YI., concerning External Knowledge. Taste is one 
of those terms, which it is difficult to define, and yet can be correctly 
used and understood by all. 

5. The natural order of things, and the general 
opinions of those best qualified to examine, and to judge, 
constitute what is called, the Standard of Taste, 

a. In the last definition, we refer to the Standard of Taste in Liter- 
ary matters ; not to what is called the Standard of Taste, or " the Fask- 
ions," in dress, equipage, &c. 



450 THE STANDARD OF TASTE. 

@. One, who can judge according to the Standard 
of Taste, is said to have Good Taste ; one, who judges 
incorrectly, to have Bad Taste ; and one, who can not 
judge at all, to be without Taste in that matter. 

a. In regard to the most of those natural objects, by which we are 
surrounded, it is probable that the majority of mankind have no taste ; 
and hence, are exchided from that, which was designed as a primary 
source of gratification and instruction, and stiU higher, an incentive to 
study, and development. Who is responsible for this perversion ? 

h. From what is shown in this and, also, in Chapter YI., we 
perceive that Taste depends on cultivation, or development. Who, 
that has applied himself to any pursuit ; as, music, drawing, &c., has 
not found his capacity to discriminate, and to enjoy new beauties 
gradually becoming more and more developed until distinctions were 
made almost unconsciously, which at first could only be made with dif- 
ficulty, if made at all ? 

T. The chief Characteristics of Good Taste are Del- 
icacy and Correctness, 

a. Delicacy of Taste is the ability to distinguish and appreciate all 
the finer, or more minute excellences of an object, or of a compositioii, 

h. Correctness of Taste is the ability to distinguish between what 
is true, and what is false ; what is appropriate and befitting, and 
what is inappropriate, and unbefitting; between real and false orna- 
mentation. 

c. Delicacy of Taste mainly depends on the natural temperament, 
or feeling; Correctness on the cultivation of the mental powers, or de- 
velopment. The foi-mer is more the gift of nature ; the latter, the result 
of art. They are so intimately connected, that one can scarcely exist 
without the other. 

8. The mental ability or capacity to appreciate the 
works and opinions of others is called Talent. 

a. Genius invents, taste discovers, and talent appreciates ; hence, 
every individual has access to the knowledge of all the others. The 
talented may understand and enjoy the works of the ingenious, and the 
criticisms of the tasteful ; while the ingenious and the tasteful are incited 
to new efforts by the hope of winning the appreciation of the talented. 
" The next thing to possessing genius ourselves is the ability [talent] to 
appreciate it in others." 



CAUSES OP SUBLIME EMOTIONS. 451 

6. It must not, for an instant, be supposed, that one of these attri- 
butes can be possessed without some goodly portions of the others. A 
man of genius, must also possess taste and talent ; and, in like manner, 
a man of taste must possess, to some good degree, the originative and 
the appreciati\e. According to which of these is most conspicuous, its 
possessor is said to be a genius, or tasteful, or talented. 

9. The objects, with which Genius, Taste, and Tal- 
ent are mainly concerned, are commonly known as the 
" Works of Nature;' and the " Works of Art^ 

a The first, and greatest source of pleasure, is in the Sub- 
lunity or Grandeur of objects. It elevates and expands the 
soul, filling it with a degree of wonder and astonishment, 
which can not be expressed. This emotion is of a serious 
nature, and, at its height, awful and solemn even to a severity, 
which serves to distinguish it from the livelier emotions pro- 
duced by beautiful objects. 

10. Natural Causes of Sublime emotions. 

First. Vastness produces sublime emotions. Vast space, especially 
if it be in height, or in depth. A boundless plain may be a grand object, 
but it does not impress us as a high mountain, or an awful precipice. 
The boundless extent of the firmament, joined to its great height, ren- 
ders it exceedingly grand ; and so also, is the vast extent of the ocean, 
in its endless swell, and in the vast force of its waters. Remove all 
bounds from space, and it becomes sublime ; hence, endless numbers, 
eternal duration, and infinite space> create emotions, which are sublimely 
pleasing. 

Second. Greatness is a source of the sublime. Great noises ; as, 
thunder, the roar of artillery, or of a mighty cataract. " I heard the 
voice of a great multitude, as the sound of many waters, and of mighty 
thunderings, saying, Allelujah.'' An engagement between two mighty 
armies combines all the elements of grandeur, vastness, noise, great 
strength and power, and hence, ''has always been considered one of 
the most sublime spectacles, that can be presented to the eye, or pic- 
tured to the imagination.'* 

Third. Ideas of a solemn, or awful kind, even those bordering on 
the terrible ; such as, darkness, solitude, silence, &c. ''He maketh dark- 
ness his pavilion ; he dwelleth in the thick cloud." 

Fourth. Obscurity also contributes to sublimity. "It is one tiling 
to make an idea clear, and another to make it affect the imagination, 



4:52 SUBLIMITY IN WRITING. 

and the imagination may be, and often is strongly affected by objects^ 
of which we have no clear conception/' '^In thoughts from the visions 
oZ the night, when deep sleep falleth upon men, fear came upon me^ 
and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a spirit passed 
before my tlxee ; the hair of my flesh stood up ; it stood still, but I could 
not discern the form thereof." 

Fifth. Deeds of virtue, heroism, magnanimity, self-denial ; in short, 
any deed arising from great and noble feelings. These give rise to 
what are called the Sentimental, or Morally Sublime Emotions. The finest 
examples of this are to be found in the records of Christianity, Our 
Saviattr, the Christian Martyrs ; men and women sealing their faith 
with their lives. Next to these, we place those, who have struggled for 
freedom, and have preferred death to ignominious servitude ; and those, 
who have labored to sustain great social reforms. 

First Suggestion. When reviewing:, it wanld be well to read Blair's Lectures 
on this subject. They are too extended for our space to be given in iiill, and their 
utility would be materially injured by an abridgment. 

1 1 . Elements of Sublimity in Writing^ or Com- 
position. 

First. The foundation of the Sublime in writing must always be in 
the nature of the object described. Unless it be such an object as, if 
presented to our eyes, or in reality, would raise sublime emotions, the 
description can not become sublime, no matter what other good qual- 
ities it may possess. 

Second. The subject must be presented so as to give us a Sublime 
impression of it. The language must be strong, concise, and simple. 
(See p. 424.) Very seldom, if ever, can figurative language be used 
without destroying the sublimity of the composition, which must not be 
confounded with the sublime style of writing. '^ God said, I am, that I 
am.'' This is a sublime idea. The language is simple, plain, and 
concise ; but let it be expressed in the sublime style, and it fails to create 
suhlime emotions. " I am the same being, that I have been, and w^ords 
fail to describe what a majestic and glorious being, I now am " 

Uiird. The narrator must be filled with those Sublime emotions, 
which are caused by his subject, and which he w^ould excite in the 
hearer, or reader. No one can produce a sublime feeling in an- 
other, unless he first has that feeling in himself; mere words can not 
excite it. 

The less improved states of society are commonly supposed to be 
ihe most favorable for producing emotions of sublimity, as men's minds 
are then more exercised wdth objects, which occasion admiration, and 



EMOTIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 453 

astonishment. The imagination is aroused, and actions, and passions 
are less restrained ; hence, imagination is more active, thought is bolder, 
and language is simpler. 

" How was it in that earlier time, 
While nature yet was young ; Earth*s wandering race, 
Exploring realms of solitude sublime. 
Not as we see, beheld her face. 
Art had not changed those mighty scenes. 
Which met their wondering eyes. Unpeopled kingdoms lay 
Before them, silent and vast, but not as in decay ; 
And the bright Day-star, from his burning throne. 
Shone o'er a thousand shores, untrodden, voiceless, lone." 

Of all writings, the Sacred Scriptures afford the highest instances of 
the sublime. This arises from the individual characters, and the nature 
of the subjects discussed. Deity, Angels, Evil Spirits; eternity, 
heaven, hell ; each has all the elements of sublimity, which we have 
enumerated above. "In the beginning, God created the heaven and 
the earth.'' Again ; ''Then the earth shook and trembled ; the founda- 
tions also of the hills were moved ; because he was wroth. He bowed 
the heavens, and came down, and darkne'ss was under his feet; and he 
did ride upon a Cherub, and did fly; yea, he did fly upon the wings of 
the wind. He made darkness his secret place; his pavilion round 
about him were dark waters, and thick clouds of the sky." Examples 
of the sublime are scattered in profusion throughout the Bible; but 
above all, is that noblest example of Moral Sublimity that has ever been 
recorded, ^^Father, forgive them !" 

No writer is continuously sublime. There will be occasions when 
the subject loses its interest, or the narrator fails to be incited by it ; or, 
by a wrong selection of words, fails to arouse the proper emotion. In- 
deed, it is unnatural to expect that the state of mental excitement, en 
which the sublime depends, should be abiding. In mind, as in matter, 
action and reaction are equal, and it is only natural to suppose that the 
mind, after having been aroused by a sublime emotion, should tend to 
its opposite state of depression with the greater force. 

h. The second source of pleasure is in the emotions excited 
by what is beautiful. This is next in degree to that arising 
from sublimity. It produces livelier emotions in the mind, 
than those caused by the sublime, and extends to a greater 
variety of objects, which differ very greatly from each other 
both in degree and in quality. Hence, no word in the language 
is used in a more vague sense than beauty. It is applied to 



454 NATURAL CAUSES OP THE [Book V. 

almost every object, that pleases the eye, or the ear ; to a 
great number of the graces of composition ; to many disposi- 
tions of the mind ; nay, to several objects of merely abstract 
science. We speak of a beautiful tree, flower, house, gar- 
den, evening, drive, sunset ; of a beautiful character ; and 
of a beautiful theory of mathematics. The best theory for 
this is, that a great many objects are pleasing, not because 
they all possess the same property, but because there are 
many ways, through w^hich these pleasing emotions may be 
excited in the mind, and these, having similar effects, receive 
the same name, which is also given by a species of meton- 
omy, to the objects causing these emotions. 

IS. Natural Causes of the Emotions of the Beau- 
tiful, 

First. Color is a source of Beauty. This depends, to a certain ex- 
tent on the structure of the eye, by which, in different persons, some 
colors are rendered more agteeable than others, (Ch, YI,) incidental 
Association has its influence also in regard to colors. Green is asso- 
ciated with rural scenes ; blue, with the serenity of the sky ; white, with 
purity; black, with death. Eefined tastes select delicate and harmoni- 
ous colors ; uncultivated tastes are pleased with the more glaring and 
those, which are more strongly contrasted 

Second. Figure is a source of Beauty. The simplest forms of fig- 
ures are the geometrical. These please us by their regularity and sym- 
metry. It has been suggested that the regular are pleasing because they 
seem to be combined with utihty. That is, these figures are seen in 
buildings, tools, canals, and such other works, as are constructed for 
business purposes. But simple figures do not give us so much pleas- 
ure, as those, which are more complex and varied, and hence, in the 
works of nature we do not find straight lines ; on the contrary, it has 
been asserted that, " Nature abhors straight lines, as much as she does a 
vacuum/' Every object in nature assists in diversifying the outlines of 
the landscape. The variety in the forms of plants, and of foliage, all 
serve to diversify and beautify, and yet each is a departure from straight 
lines. Hogarth, in his Analysis of Beauty, asserts that figures, 
bounded by curved lines, are more beautiful than those bounded by 
right lines and angles. He selects tv/o lines, on which he asserts the 
beauty of figures principally depends. The one is a wave line, now 
called Hogarth's Line of Beaut i/ ; the other is a wave hne twined around 
a cylindrical body, which he called the Line of Grace, 



EMOTIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 455 

Third. Motion is a source of beauty. Motion to be pleasing must 
be gentle ; if it be swift, or strong ; as, lightning, or a torrent, it be- 
comes sublime. The flight of birds, the gambolling of lambs, the mo- 
tions of children in play, and the graceful, upward curling of smoke, 
are beautiful. Motions in straight lines and in angles give rise to fig- 
ures bounded by these lines and angles, and hence, are less beautiful 
than motions in curved lines, which seem to generate figures bounded 
by curves. The motions, necessary for business, are mostly in direct 
lines ; but those of pleasure or amusement are mostly in curves, which 
are likewise the lines used in ornamental movements. Persons, who 
move their limbs in right lines, are said to be awkward in their motions ; 
those, who move them in curved lines, are said to be graceful. 

Fourth. Design or art is a source of beauty. The fitness of a plant, 
an animal, or even of a machine, for some peculiar purpose, or end ex- 
cites pleasant emotions ; as, when we consider the fitness of each part 
of a plant to perform its allotted task ; as, of the root to gather moisture, 
the stem to distribute it ; the leaves to assist in assimilating ; and the 
flowers to reproduce the plant. In this case we are struck with the fit- 
ness of the parts, but when we examine a piece of skilful mechanism, 
we are more apt to admire the art or skill shown in its construction, as 
the evidence of human ingenuity; for, exhibitions of mind affects us 
more powerfully than those of matter. Our sense of the adaptation or 
fitness of objects is always awakened by a natural association, which 
leads us to seek the end or design, and to examine the propriety of the 
parts in relation to this end or design. Objects, having this propriety 
of parts, will always seem to have some beauty ; those, in which it is 
not perceptible, will be ugly or deformed. 

Fifth. The Picturesque is also a source of those pleasurable emo- 
tions, which we call beautiful. By Picturesque, Ave mean those objects, 
which are irregular in form ; as, the ruins of buildings, precipices, wild 
natural scenery, and such objects as present rou-gh and jagged outlines. 
These serve by contrast to render regular outlines more gratifying, and 
thus to enhance our enjoyment of the beautiful. 

Sixth. Moral excellence and refined sentiments are sources of the 
beautiful. We have the sentimental, or morally beautiful in the same 
manner as we have the sentimental, or morally sublime. Emotions of 
moral beauty are awakened within us by the contemplation of good 
deeds ; as, in exhibitions of honesty, or fair dealing, in which the gov- 
erning motive is clearly seen to spring from a desire to do what is right. 
An example of this is a debtor, who, having been legally discharged 
from all his liabilities, afterward voluntarily pays the remainder of his 
debts. So, when one having possession of money belonging to another, 
who does not know about it, voluntarily restores it; especially if he be 
poor and needy. 



456 BEAUTY IN COMPOSITION. 

Benevolence is a source of moral beauty also. The good Samaritan 
deserves blessings, not simply for the comforts bestowed on a single 
sufferer, but also for that pleasure, which the beautiful narration of his 
benevolence has ever since given. 

The beauty of the human face is perhaps of the most complex kind, 
and, therefore, presents the most perfect idea of the beautiful. It com- 
bines all of the elements mentioned ; as, color, figure, motion, adapta- 
tion, intelligence, benevolence, virtue, &c. Hence, in order to be per- 
fectly beautiful, one must not only possess a fine complexion, and hand- 
some features, but must be intelligent, good, and virtuous in disposition. 
Without intelligence and virtue, the face can be pretty, but it never can 
be beautiful in the true sense of the term. Hence, also, every one will 
endeavor to cultivate pure, truthful, and virtuous feelings ; unless so 
depraved as to be insensible to the disgrace of presenting to the view 
of others a countenance, which tells the meanness of its owner's soul. 

IS. The Source of Beauty in Writing' or Compo- 
sition. 

Writing or composition may be said to be beautiful either 
because the ideas, suggested by it, are in themselves pleasing, 
or because the manner in which the ideas are presented, or 
the style pleases. For beauty, like sublimity, may consist 
both in the matter and in the manner of a discourse. 

By the beauties of composition are especially meant those emotions 
of the beautiful, which are caused by the ideas presented. If the ideas 
of the objects suggested by the narration, are so well presented, that they 
affect us as the objects themselves would affect us, the narration is said 
to be beautiful, or to contain beautiful ideas. If it be a train of ab- 
stract reasoning, clearly and logically presented, or an abstract idea, or 
even a supposition, which pleasurably affects us, it is called a beautiful 
thought. 

We spoke of the less-cultivated state of society, as more favorable 
to the development of sublimity in composition. On the other hand the 
more cultivated the state of society becomes, the more favorable is it to 
the development of the beautiful in composition. So that, while the 
number of writers and orators, who gain reputations for the sublime in 
composition may be decreasing, the number of those, who excel in the 
beautiful increases. 

c. A third source of pleasure is in Novelty. The novelty 
or newness of natural objects excites our curiosity, and thus 
leads us to examine, or study an unknown object. 



MELODY — HARMONY — WIT — HUMOR. 45 7 

This is especially active in the minds of children, and if properly- 
used, is the natural means of eliciting the attention, and thus, easily- 
conveying- instruction. The benefit of novelty is in the fact, that by it 
the mind is incited to give attention to an object without regard to the 
merits of the object itself, and thus, a dry and uninteresting matter may 
receive so much attention, as will render it interesting and insure its 
subsequent study even after its novelty ceases to attract. 

d, A fourth source of pleasurable emotions is found in 
melody and harmony. Melody is a pleasing succession of 
sounds, such as may be produced by a single voice, or by a 
flute. Harmony is the agreement, or concord of sounds ; as, 
in the different parts sustained by different voices, or by dif- 
ferent instruments, at the same time. Music is called sublime, 
or beautiful, according as it excites these emotions. Another 
peculiarity of harmony and melody is, that they may be 
made to accompany, and to enhance the effects of emotions 
produced by other means. Examples of this may be seen in 
military parades, and in theatrical representations. Melody 
and harmony are to be regarded in arranging our thoughts, 
in the forms of expression, and in the words. 

e, A fifth source of pleasing emotions is found in wit, and 
humor. Wit is the term applied to ludicrous thoughts, and 
to thoughts containing some sudden, or unexpected turn or 
comparison. 

The lowest species of wit is the pun, or play upon words. Lord 
Chesterfield said, that '' one, who could be guilty of a pun, should be 
expelled from good society.'* We beg leave to differ from his lordship. 
In our humble opinion, he meant to make the punishment too severe 
for one, who only meant to make a pun. 

/. Humor is a continuous flow of pleasing ideas. It is not 
so sparkling and brilliant as wit, nor so serious as ordinary 
narration. 

Different Kinds of Wit and Humor. 

a. A seeming resemblance from the double meaning of a word. 

1. Beneath this stone my wife doth lie. 

She's now at rest, and so am L 
20 



458 WIT AND HUMOR — PATHOS. 

2. His deaili^ which happened in his herth^ 
At forty-odd befell ; 

They went and told the sexton, 

And the sexton tolled the bell. — Hood, 

h. A seeming contrast in words, called a Verbal Antithesis. 

3. When Nelson fought his battle in the Sound, it was the 
result alone, that decided whether he was to kiss a hand at 
court, or a rod at a coitrt-martial. 

4. Because he was not, as he should he, perfecto ipse; but 
because he was, as he should not be, perfectly tipse. 

c. A seeming opposition originating in the same cause. 

5. Chimneys have smoked, that never smoked before, 
And we have dined, where we shall dine no more. 

d. A substitution of words in a familiar piece, which is thus made 
ludicrous. This is called Parody. 

6. I knew by the smoke, that so greasefully curled 
Around the black chimney-tops that a cook-shop was near, 
And I said, " If good victuals can be found in the world, 
The man, that is hungry might seek for them here." 

e. A second kind of wit, and of a higher grade than the play on 
words, is that, which exists in the thought. It consists of ludicrous 
images, resemblances, and contrasts. 

7. A drunkard is one, who falls down, and then holds on to 
keep from falling up again. 

8. Dealer. One of these stoves will save one half of the fuel. 
Buyer, Then I'll take two of them, and so save the whole. 

/. Causes and effects having no relation, fancifully joined. 

9. An Irishman, seeing a person shoot a hawk from the 
top of a high tree, said, " He might have saved his powder 
and shot, for the fall would have killed the bird." 

Seventh. Pathos, or the pathetic is a source of gratification. 

The pathetic is a mournful pleasure, in which all like to indulge ; and 
hence, those narrations, which make us weep, are sought as eagerly, as 
those, which make us mirthful. Patlios, like wit, is an appeal to a 
species of emotions, lower than those excited by sublimity. 



IDIOMS — DIALECT. 459 

10. My mother ! when I learned that tliou wast dead, 
Sajj^'ast thou conscious of the tears I shed? 
Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son — 
Wretch even then, life's journey just begun ? 
Perhaps thou gavest me, though unfelt, a kiss ; 
Perhaps a tear, if souls can weep in bliss. — Cowper, 



Idioms. 

1. In every language, certain expressions are found 
peculiar to the language in which they are used ; these 
are called Idioms^ from a Greek word signifying pe- 
culiar. 

Thus, we have English Idioms^ French Idioms, Latin Idioms, Greek 
Idioms, &c. The English salutation is, ''How do you doV The French, 
^'How do you carry yourself f The Spanish and Italian, ''How do you 
stand f So, if an American should say to his friend, How do you carry 
yourself f he would use a French Idiom ; &c. 

The student of Latin is usually required to transpose, or construe the Latin 
words so til at they shall be in the order required for translation. This is wrong ; 
since, by this means, he fails entirely to perceive the idiom of the Latin. A bet- 
ter method is to require him to produce a sentence in English with w^ords, as 
nearly as possible, in the same order as the Latin ; then let him give the corres- 
ponding English. This will make the study of Latin a valuable auxiliary to the 
study of the English Idioms. 

2. It very often happens, that the inhabitants of dif- 
ferent portions of the same country have peculiar ex- 
pressions, and modes of pronouncing certain words, so 
marked as to betray their locality. This peculiarity is 
called Dialect^ from a Greek word meaning different 
speech , 

Thus, we can determine very well in what part of the United States 
a person resides by his speech. In ancient times, when men travelled 
less, this subdivision of a langua,2:e into Dialects was carried to such an 
extreme, that in the Grecian peninsula, several distinct Dialects existed; 
as, the Attic, the Ionic, the Doric, &c. ; each as distinct as the different 
orders of Grecian architecture. 



4:60 STYLE — • SIMPLE — WEA K — CONCISE. 

S. The peculiar mode, in which individuals express 
themselves, is called Style^ from a Latin word signify- 
ing a pointed instrument with which the ancients 
wrote. (See extract Style?} 

In the first place, this name evidently meant the difference, percep- 
tive in the characters made in writin^i^; and from the penmanship it has 
been transferred, by a species of metonymy, to the individual's mode of 
expressing his thoughts. 

4. Style is always modified by the narrator's mode 
of thinking. We may always assume, that there will 
be a close likeness between his use of language and his 
manner of thinking. Hence, we speak of his style, 
as simple or florid^ iveak or strongs concise or diffuse, 

I. A Simple style is without ornament, or only ornamented in a 
moderate de2:ree. 

II. A Florid style abounds in figures, which are sometimes called the 
Flowers of Rhetoric. 

III. A Weak, or Feeble style narrates in an uncertain and loose 
manner. It is understood by an extra exertion only on the part of the 
reader, or hearer. 

IV. A Strong, or Nervous style compels the attention. The thought 
is sure to be made known by it. 

V. A Concise style seeks to convey the thought in the fewest words 
possible. It is always in danger of becoming obscure. 

VI. A Diffuse style spreads out the thought, multiplies words, and 
is liable to become tedious. 

A great many other distinctions may be made in style, according to 
the differences in the characters of the narrators. 

5. Style is also classified, according to the relative 
amount of ornamentation used, into the Dr^, Plain^ 
Neat^ and Elegant, 

I. The Dry style rejects all ornament, and is not attentive even t3 
the harmony of the language. It seeks only to convey the meaning 
witliout regard to the pleasure of the receiver. 

\. To the Defendant. — You are hereby summoned, and required to 
answer the complaint in this action, which will be filed in the office of 
the Clerk of the county of Sullivan, at Monticello, New York, on the 
12th day of July, 1859, and to serve a copy of your answer to the said 



STYLE — PLAIN- -NEAT. 461 

complaint on the sui)S(.'nI)ers, at their office, in MonticelKo, Snilivan Co., 
N. Y., witiiin twenty days after the service of this summons on you, 
exclusive of the day of such service ; and if you fail to answer the said 
complaint within the time aforesaid, the plaintiff in this action will ap- 
ply to the court for the relief demanded in the complaint. Dated, 
July 10th, 1859. 

II. The Plain style jses figurative words, and some of the simpler 
fl<2:ures. In it, attention is given to the choice of words, and to the mel- 
ody of sentences, or the succession of sounds. 

2. " He is a fool that grumbles at every little mischance. 
Put the best foot forward, is an old and good maxim. Don't 
run about and tell acquaintances, that you have been unfortu- 
nate ; people do not like to have unfortunate men for ac- 
quaintances. Add to a vigorous determination a cheerful 
spirit ; if reverses come, bear them like a philosopher, and 
get rid of them as soon as you can. Poverty is like a pan- 
ther ; look it steadily in the face, and it will turn from you." 

III. The Neat style uses the common kinds of figures. In it, 
minute attention is given to the melody and to the harmony of the lan- 
guage. It may be used in almost all kinds of narration. 

3. " You heap a million tons of hewn rocks on a square 
mile, or two of earth, which was green once. The trees look 
down from the hill-sides and ask each other as they stand on 
tiptoe ; ' What are these people about ?' And the small herbs 
at their feet look up and whisper back ; ' We will go and see.' 
So the small herbs pack themselves up in the least possible 
bundles^ and wait until the wind steals to them at night and 
whispers ; ' Come with me.' Then they go softly with it into 
the ,o:reat city — one to a cleft in the pavement, one to a spout 
in the roof, one to a seam in the marbles over a rich gentle- 
man's bones, and one to the grave without a stone, where 
nothing but a man is buried — and there they grow, looking 
down on the generations of men from mouldy roofs, looking 
up from between the less trodden pavements, looking out 
through iron cemetery raihngs. Listen to them, when there 
is only a light breath stirring, and you will hear them saying 
to each other; "^ Wait awhile!' The words run along the 
telegraph of those narrow, green lines, that border the roads, 



462 ELEGANT STYLE. 

leading from the city, until they reach the slope of the hiils^ 
and the trees repeat in low murmurs to each other ; ' Wait 
awhile !' By-and-by the flow of life in the streets ebbs, and 
the old leafy inhabitants — the smaller tribes always in front 
— saunter in, one by one very careless seemingly, but very 
tenacious, until they swarm so, that the great stones gape 
from each other with the crowding of their roots, and the feld- 
spar begins to be picked out of the granite to find them food. 
At last the trees take up their solemn line of march, and 
never rest until they have encamped in the market place. 
Wait lonoj enouo^h and you w^ill find an old dotincr oak hus:- 
ging a huge worn block in its yellow underground arm ; that 
was the corner-stone of the statehouse. Oh, so patient she is, 
this imperturbable nature.'' — (9. W, Holmes. 

lY. The Elegant style uses figures to anv extent within the bounds 
of propriety. It is, in short, the highest and most finished style, in 
which thought is expressed. 

T7ie adapfation of the Bible to every variety of human life, a proof of 
its Divine Origin. 

4.'' Coeval with the infancy of time — it still remains, and 
widens in the circle of its intelligence. Simple as the lan- 
guage of a child — it charms the most fastidious taste. 
Mournful as the voice of grief — it reaches to the highest 
pitch of exultation. Intelligible to the unlearned peasant — 
it supplies the critic and the sage with" food for earnest 
thought. Silent and secret as the reproofs of conscience — it 
echoes beneath the vaulted dom.i of the cathedral, and shakes 
the trembling multitude. The last companion of the dying 
and destitute — it seals the bridal vow, and crowns the maj- 
esty of kings. Closed in the heedless grasp of the luxuri- 
ous and the slothful — it unfolds its awful record over the 
yawning grave. Bright and joyous as the morning star to 
the benighted traveller — it rolls like the waters of the del- 
-'jige over the path of him who wilfully mistakes his way." 
— Mrs, Ellis, 

Susrgestron. The student should commit, or make very familiar those ex- 
pressions, which attract his attention. If the pupils be required to read excellent 
passages very many times, and explanatory remarks be made by the teacher, tho 



GRECIAN AND KOMAN STYLES. 463 

different varieties of style will be made thoroughly familiar, and in the simplest 
manner possible. 

The student must not suppose that every period of a passage is in a 
certain style. To write such, would be almost impossible ; but, *,hat 
the general style of the piece is that, which is mentioned. 

The following extract is from Blackwood's Magazine. It 
illustrates the difference between several of the various kinds 
of style. 

** The difference between the Grecian and the Roman styles is very 
great. When you deal with a Greek subject you must be very devout, 
and have unbounded reverence for Diana of the Ephesians. You must 
also believe in the second sight ; and be as solemn, calm, and passion- 
less as the ghost of Hamlet's father. Never descend to the slightest 
familiarity, nor lay off the stilts for a moment; and far from calling a 
spade a spade, call it — 

That sharp instrument 
With which the Theban husbandman lays bare 
The breast of our great mother. 

The Roman, on the other hand, may occasionally be jocular — but 
always warlike ; one is like a miracle-play in a church — the other a 
tableau vivant in a camp. If a Greek has occasion to ask his sweet- 
heart " if her mother knows she's out," and '' if she has sold her mangle 
yet" — he says : — 

Menestheus. Cleanthe ! 
Cleanthe. My lord ! 

Men. Your mother — your kind, excellent mother, 
She who hung o'er your couch in infancy, 
And felt within her heart the joyous pride 
Of having such a daughter — does she know 
Sweetest Cleanthe ! that you've left the shade 
Of the maternal mansion 1 
Clea. She does, my lord. 

Men. And — but I can scarce ask the question — whea 
I last beheld her, 'gainst the whitened wall 
Stood a strong engine — flat, and broad, and heavy, 
Its entrails stones — and moved on mighty rollers, 
^ Rendering the crisped web as smooth and soft 
As whitest snow. That engine, sweet Cleanthe ! 
Fit pedestal for household deity — 
Lar and old penates has she it still ? 
Or for gold bribes has she disposed of it? 
I fain would know — pray, tell me — is it sold'? 



464 PERSPICUITY — ORNAMENT. 

The Roman goes quicker to work ; 

Tell me, my TuUia, does your mother know 
You're out ; and has she sold her mangle yet ? 

The composition of the Elizabethan age has a spice of both ;- 

Conradin. Ha ! Celia, here ! Come hither, pretty one. 

Thou hast a mother, child ? 

Celia. Most people have, sir. 

Con. r faith thou 'rt sharp — thou hast a biting wit, 

But does this mother — this epitome 

Of what all other people are possessed of — - 

Knows she tbou'rt out and gadding? 

Cle. No, not gadding 

Out, sir — she knows Tm out. 

Con. She had a mangle ; 

Faith 't was a huge machine ; and smoothed the webs 

Like snow — I've seen it oft — it was indeed 

A right good mangle. 

Col. Then thou 't not in thoughts 

To buy it — or thou would'st not praise it so. 

Con. A parlous child ! keen as the cold north wind. 

Yet light as Zephyrus — No — no — not buy it; 

But hath she sold it, child V 



GoodStyle. 

I. A Good Style not only enables the readers or 
hearers to understand, but even renders it impossible 
for them not to understand. Its characteristics are 
Perspicuity and Ornament. 

A narration should be so presented, as to compel the attention, and 
thus secure its proper perception. It is no more the duty of the nar- 
rator to present knowledge, than it is to attract attention to it, and thus 
secure its reception. 

^. Perspicuity is that property of language, which 
enables the narrator's meaning to be correctly known. 

We are not apt to select those discourses, which require to be read, 
or to be heard several times before they caii be understood. " We are 
pleased with a narrator and freely bestow praise upon him, who frees 



PURITY. 465 

us from all fatigue in finclino;' his meariino^; who can'ies us through his 
subject without eiiibarrassment or confusion ; whose style always flows 
like a limpid stream, wherein we see distinctly to the very bottom/' 

3. Perspicuity comprises the purity^ propriety^ and 
precision of words and constructions, and the clear- 
ness^ strength^ unity ^ and harmony of sentences, 

4. Purity is the use of such words and phrases, as 
belong to the language, and are sanctioned by present 
good usage, in opposition to barbarisms^ and solecisms. 

a. Barbarism is the use of archaisms, obsolete words, 
newly-coined words, and foreign words. 

1. Archaism^ (p. 421.) "Up I rose three houres after 
twelfer 

1. Obsolete words are those out of use ; obsolescent, those going out 
of use. 

2. " Whereof the other, humbly as she might, 
Thanked her ; for in right il array 

She was with storm and heat, I you hehight ; 
And every lady, then anone right." — Chaucer, 1400. 
8. Obsolescent, I learnt my lesson ; for I learned my lesson. 

II. Newly-coined words are those recently introduced, which are too 
uncouth to be admitted. All profanity, by-ivords, and odd phrases evi- 
dently belong to this class of barbarisms. This, of course, does not in- 
clude new scientific terms ; nor corrections of words, which before were 
used improperly. The fear of being charged with the use of a barbar- 
ism must not cause us to hesitate in adopting an improvement. 

4. I do not know whether this belongs to the to-be, or to 
the to-do » 

III. Foreign words, or words from other languages. 

5. The rights of the people were subverted by a coup 
d'etat. 

6. The beau monde assume a certain hauteur in the pres- 
ence of the canaille. 

b. A solecism is an unusual construction of the words form- 
ing a sentence, or the use of a foreign idiom. 

20* 



466 PROPRIETY. 

7. He plays a good fiddle ; meaning, he plays tlie fiddle 
well. 

8. The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on 
the subject. 

This is a French idiom. Omit themselves, and it becomes English. 

5. Propriety consists in the use of such words, as 
are best suited to the nature of that, which is to be ex- 
pressed, in opposition to ill-chosen words, misplaced 
words, and to those errors included under enallage. 
(See p. 423.) 

Words differ in the general estimation, in which they are held. 
Some being habitually and generally used in connection with lofty 
thoughts; others, in the sciences and arts (2^ecAmcaZ names, Ch.Yi.) ; 
others, in the common pursuits of life; and others, only in low, or vul- 
gar expressions, and yet they may be pure English. Hence, while a 
style may be pure, it may be highly improper; but, on the contrary, if a 
style be proper, it must be pure. Therefore, barbarism and solecism are 
hostile to propriety of style. 

6. Words are ill-chosen, under the following cir- 
cumstances ; — 

EiRST. When they are vulgar, or low, and the subject is not so. 
Words are the exponents of the narrator's thoughts. 

9. The proposition squints in the wrong direction. 

The proposition looks in the wrong direction. 

10. The man and his brother had 2i falling out, and a set to 

Second. When the words are technical, and hence may not be under- 
stood. This does not, of course, apply to technical words, when used 
in the sciences, or when sure to be understood. (See Allusions,) 

1 1 . The power of vice increases in a progressive ratio. 

12. Do not array your knowledge in a hollow square; it 
may do for the parade of an army, but is not suited for the 
array of knowledge. 

13. He is as noisy as a huzz-saw, and as useless as a broken 
Jiy -wheel. 

Third. When a repetition of the same word, or a succession of simV 
iar words occurs. 

14. I only kno\v, that he only brought it to our house only. 



PROPDTETY — PRECT.-ION. ^'O i 

15. The word jingle has another form, gingle, but the 
former form is more used than the latter form» 

Fourth. When the words have meanings barely similar to those 
which we should use. 

1 6. The man was as mad as he could be, and the boy was dry. 

The man was as angry as he could be, and the boy was thirsty, 

17. Your entrance expelled my bright illusions. 

Fifth. When words are used in prose, which may be used in poetry 
only, or may be used by a poetic license. 

18. I met him last eve [evening], and he promised to call 
at morn. 

19. He walks slow and soft ; for, he walks slowly and softly 
Sixth. When the words or phrases are ambiguous. 

20. Some phrases are not admissible in sentences withou/ 
a previous explanation. 

"Which is to be explained ; the phrases, or the sentences? 

21. I saw a horse-fly through the window. 

I saw through the window, a horse-fly. 

Seventh. When the words are so arranged as to be confused, or are 
used illogically. 

22. Virtue, so to speak, is the consummation of all those 
graces, which, arising in the soul, attuned, as it were, to 
the heavenly graces, dispose us to follow, if I may be allowed 
the expression, a certain directness of conduct. 

23. '* What is the next rule to be attended to ?" — Illogical, 
Eighth. When the words are unknown, or unintelligible. 

24. The opacity of my intellect is quite conspicuous. 

Propriety of style is violated more often than all the other qualities 
of style combined. No narrator is ever entirely free from this kind of 
error; nevertheless, we should aim at perfection in it. "He, that aims 
at the sun, sends his arrow higher than he, who aims below it.'* 

7. Precision is using the proper words, and the 
proper number of words, in order to convey our 
thoughts correctly. It is opposed to looseness and 
vagueness of style, and to a redundancy of words. 



468 SYNONYMS. 

Precision signifies to cut off. It is used figuratiTely, as if we prune, or cut off 
redundancies, so that tlie expression shall be a faithful and exact counterpart of 
the thought. The opposite of a Precise is a zague, loose style. 

8. Precision is yiolated in three ways; firsts when 
the expression conveys an idea, which only resembles 
the one intended ; second^ when it only conveys a part 
of the idea ; and third^ when it conveys too much. 

Clear and accurate thoughts are absolutely essential to enable the 
narrator to frarae clear and accurate- expressions. One, who thinks 
confusedly, or disjointedly, will necessarily express himself badly. 
Again, all thoughts do not require an equal degree of precision ; some, 
because they are trivial, others, because they are sublime, (p. 4:h\^Fourth.) 

a. The three errors, mentioned as faults in precision, arise 
principally from the use of synonyms^ or words having the 
same meaning. It is not probable that a single pair of per- 
fect synonyms can be found in any language. 

Second Suggestion. When, in composing, the choice of several words is of- 
fered, examine each one very carefully, to see which best expresses your idea. 
If you will examine the same piece of composition several times, with intervals 
between each examination, you will find whether you are improving in a knowl- 
edge of the niceties of words. In regard to the study of words, observe this rule. 
^^ Reflect on every word, which you see. hear, read, or speak ; its birth, derivation, and 



9. Examples of woi^ds usually called Synonymous, 

I. Abhor and detest mean to dislike. To abhor is to have a strong 
dislike ; to detest is to have a strong dislike with a strong disapprobation. 

25. A man of refined taste abhors beggary and detests 
stealing. 

II. Acknowledge, avow, and confess mean to confirm. But to ac- 
knowledge supposes a small fault, which the acknowledgment propitiates; 
to avow supposes the person to glory in what is confirmed ; to confess 
supposes the confirmation of a great fault or crime. 

26. A gentleman acknowledges his mistake, and is for- 
given ; a patriot avows his opposition to tyranny, and is ap- 
plauded ; a prisoner confesses his guilt, and is punished. 

III. Alone and only imply singleness. But a/one means unaccompa- 
nied ; only, but one of that kind. 

27. This child is alone ; but this is an only child. 



SYNONYMS. • 469 

28. Virtue alone makes us happy. Virtue only makes 
us happy. 

Virtue unassisted makes us liappy. The second is ambiguous. If nr.ly be 
taken as an adjunct of virtue^ then, nothing but virtue makes us happy ; if takeo 
with makes, then all virtue can do is to make us happy. 

IV. Almost and mostly mean the greater part. Almost means 
nearly the whole ; mostly, a portion greater than half. 

29. A peninsula is [almost, mostly] surrounded by water. 

Apply the definition in both forms to Africa and to Hindostan. 

V. Amazed, astonished, confounded, and surprised mean unex- 
pected. But I am amazed by what is incomprehensible ; astonished at 
what is vast or great ; confounded by what is shocking ; surprised by 
what is new or unexpected. 

30. I am amazed by the goodness of the Divine Being; 
astonished at the extent of his works ; confounded by the con- 
duct of the Evil One ; and surprised by the appearance of 
meteors. 

YI. Ambiguous and equivocal mean uncertain. Ambiguous is ap- 
plied to an expression, which may be taken in two ways, as in example 
twenty-eighth; equivocal is applied to an expression, which has two 
meanings ; one being known, and the other unknown to one of the 
parties. 

31. A man, whose thoughts are confused, will often be am- 
biguous ; an honest man never equivocates. 

YII. Austerity, rigor, severity, imply harshness. Austerity relates 
to the manner of living, as opposed to effeminacy ; rigor, to punishing, 
as opposed to clemency ; severity, to thinking, as opposed to relaxation. 

32. A hermit is austere in his life ; a fop is effeminate. 
A judge is rigorous in the application of law ; the executive 
is clement in its execution. A casuist is severe in applying 
rules ; a latitudinarian is relax in his principles. 

VIII. By and with signify cause, manner, &c. By shows the rela- 
tion of the Producer as a second object; with shows the relation of a 
second object of means, or instrument. 

IX. Calm, peace, and tranquillity mean quiet. Calm, with regard 
to a disturbance ; peace, a state free from causes which disturb ; tran- 
quillity, free from trouble. 

33. A good man enjoys the calm after the storm, peace 
with others, and tranquillity in himself. 



470 • SYNONYMS. 

X. Complete and entire mean not wanting. Complete, wanting none 
of its appendages ; entire, wanting none of its parts. 

34. John has the entire house, but has no complete apart- 
ment. 

XI. Custom and habit signify usual actions. Custom refers to the 
act of a tribe or nation ; habit, to the actions of individuals, produced 
by custom. 

35. Bj the power of custom, habit grows. * 

XII. Desist, quit, and renounce mean to leave. We desist because 
the attempt is difficult; quit, to do something else; and renounce, be- 
cause we are weary, or disgusted. 

36. A politician desists from his plans, when they are too 
difficult ; he quits office-seeking for some respectable pursuit ; 
and he renounces party politics, because he is disgusted by 
them. 

XIII. Difficulty, impediment, and obstacle signify stops, or hin- 
drances. Difficulties grow out of the pursuit, and stop us by embar- 
rassing, or confusing us. We overcome difficulties. Impediments do not 
belong to the pursuit, or are foreign to it, and hinder or retard our prog- 
ress. We remove impediments. Obstacles are foreign to the pursuit and 
stop us. We surmount obstacles. 

37. Here our road branched in several directions, and we 
halted until, by consulting the guide-book, we overcame this 
not-unexpected difficulty. A little farther ahead, a couple of 
trees had fallen across the road. The first, being a small one, 
formed an impediment, which we easily removed ; but the 
second, being very large, formed a more serious obstacle, 
which, by a temporary bridge of poles, w^e finally surmounted, 

XIV. Discover and invent mean to find. Discover, to find what was 
hidden, but already made ; invent, to find how to make new things. 

38. Hervey discovered the circulation of the blood; but 
Galileo invented the telescope. 

XV. Distinguish and separate signify difference. To distinguish is 
to divide into kinds or classes according to some property as a basis ; 
to separate is to take the parts from each other. 

39. We distinguish the different kinds of grain ; as, wheat, 
rye, &c. We separate, by putting them into different bins. 



SYNONYMS — CLEARNESS. 471 

XVI. Enoncrh and sufficient relate to quantity. Enough relates to 
the quantity, which one desires ; sufficient, to the quantity used. 

40. The covetous man never has enough ; although he has 
sufficient for nature. 

41. There are three things, that are never satisfied, yea, 
four things, which saj not. It is enough. 

XVII. Fatigue and weariness mean loss of endurance. Fatigue is 
loss of endurance from labor ; weariness, from continuance. 

42. I am fatigued by great exertions in a few minutes ; 
but I am wearied without an effort by the length of time. 

XVIII. Observe and remark mean to notice, or to say. Remark is 
to notice objects ; observe, to notice their relations, or uses. 

43. The traveller remarks the different objects, that meet 
his view, and observes their relations to each other. 

XIX. Pride and vanity imply esteem. Pride is undue self-esteem. 
Vanity, undue desire for the esteem of others. 

44. Dean Swift says, "A man may be too proud to be 
rain." 

XX. Prudence and wisdom imply propriety of action. Prudence 
prevents us from saying, or doing improper things ; wisdom leads us to 
speak and to do proper things. 

45. A prudent man employs the best means for avoiding 
difficulties ; a wise man, the best means for overcoming them. 

Third Suggestion. We can not too strongly enforce the importance of frequent 
exercise in the comparison of synonymous words. Every remark, every para- 
graph, in which any words, which have corresponding, or equivalent words 
should be carefully criticised. For instance; — 

Student, "1 understand this example. 

Teacher. Are you sure? Do you understand it, or do you know it? 

Student. I think I miderstayid it ; I do not think I know it. 

Teacher. What is the difference ? 

10. Clearness has reference to that part of perspi- 
cuity, which depends on the position of restrictive, or 
qualifying words, phrases, or sentences. It is opposed 
to ambig-iiit?/^ eqvivocation^ and obscurity. 

a. By rnany, clearness is confounded with perspicuity. The differ 
ence, as here used, is conventional, or technical. 



472 CLEARNESS — STRENGTH. 

h. We have shown (p. 151), that the Simple, or Direct arrancrement 
of an Eng'lish sentence requires, ^zrs^, the subject and its adjuncts; 
second, the affirmer and its adjuncts ; third, the fir<t object and its ad^ 
juncts ; and fourth, the second objects and their adjuncts ; and farther, 
that, in the inverted arrangement, these parts are transported. We have 
also spoken of the places of Adjuncts. (See pp. 262, 263, &c.) Now 
clearness especially consists in the observance of these rules. Its op- 
posites are caused by their violations. Only a few examples are 
needed here. 

46. I know that he only superintends the establishment. 

In this example, only may be an adjunct of he^ or of superintends. It is 
either; I know that he is the only one, who superintends ; or, I know that lie su- 
perintends only ; that is, does nothing else. 

47. It is folly to attempt to arm ourselves against the ac- 
cidents of life, by heaping up treasures, from which nothing 
can protect us, but Divine Providence. 

WTiich, as it here stands, refers to treasures, instead of referring to accidents, as 
it should in order to make sense. 

1 1. Strength is that property of style, which deep- 
ens, or enforces the idea presented. It is especially 
opposed to tautology, or a redundancy of words. 

a. Strength is here used very much, if not entirely the same, as 
strong or nervous in the nervous style. (See p. 460, iv.) 

48. They returned back again to the same city, from 
whence they came. 

. The words in italics are tautological, and therefore useless. They 
returned to the city, whence they came. 

h. The most important word must be placed conspicuously. For 
this purpose, we may transpose as much as we see fit, always bearing 
in mind, however, the principles of Emphasis, laid down in the twelfth 
proposition of the third book. 

49. " Neither mihtary, nor civil pomp was wanting. The 
avenues were lined with grenadiers. The streets were kept 
clear by cavalry." — Macaulay, 

Let the student re-write and change the places of any of these words, and 
then examine the effects of the change on the strength of the passage. 

c. A shorter sentence should precede a longer; and a weaker should 
precede one of greater strength. 



EUPHONY — MELODY. 4 i 3 

50. " The sergeant made proclamation. Hastings advanced 
to the bar, and bent his knee. The culprit was, indeed, not 
unworthy of that great presence. He had ruled an extensive 
and populous country, had made laws and treaties, had 
sent forth armies, had set up and pulled down princes." — 
Macaiday. 

d. Sentences should not end in short, trivial, or unemphatic words ; 
except it be the intention to demean the expression. 

e. When two ideas are compared, either a similarity, or else a con- 
trast should be maintained in the language. 

51. ''Homer hurries us with commanding impetuosity; 
Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty ; Homer scatters 
with a generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful 
magnificence." — Pope, 

IS. Euphony is a pleasing fitness; firsts in the 

sounds employed ; and second^ in the adaptation of the 
sound to the idea expressed. It is opposed to ca-coph'- 
o-ny^ or unpleasantness of sounds. 

a. Our ideas of the fitness, or unfitness of the language will, as a 
matter of course, be influenced by the nature of the thought. 

] S. Euphony comprises melody and harmony, (See 

p. 457, d,^ 

a. Melody, in language, consists in ; firsts agreeable sounds, 
as represented by single letters ; second^ by single words ; and 
third, by sentences. 

First. Of the letters, the vowel sounds are the most melodious ; the 
semi-vowels are the next; and the consonants are the least sc. (See 
p. 194 and 195.) 

Second. Of words, those containing a fair proportion of vowels, 
semi-vowels, and mutes, the most of the first, and the fewest of the last, 
are the most melodious; as, adamantine^ tranquillity, pardon; those 
composed of an excess of vowels lack character; as, revere, ear; those 
having too many consonants are too rough; as, grass, stub, shrink, 
shamefacedness, &c. 

b. Harmony is, f^rst, the agreement or concord of the 



4 74 EUPHONY — HARMONY. 

sounds represented by words in the same sentence ; and sec- 
ond, of the sound and the sense. 

Every word in a sentence may be melodious, and yet the sentence 
may be unharmonioas, if it be badly arranged. 

52. Office or rank may be the recompense of intrigue, ver- 
satility, or flattery. — Unharmonious. 

Eank or oflQce may be the recompense of flattery, versatility, or intri^e. — 

Euphonious. 

c. Euphony is also opposed to monotony ; hence, too many words, 
accented alike, or of the same length, or having like parts, must not 
come in succession. 

53. No man may put off the law of God. Better say, No 
man may escape from God's law. 

54. The king was needy, fearful, and feeble. The king 
was feeble, timid, and destitute. 

hh. It was my intent to present my bill for payment of 
the rent. 

I intended to present my bill for the rent. 

56. And an enormous serpent lay dead on the floor. 

And a serpent of enormous size lay dead on the floor. 

d. Euphony requires variety ; hence, a proper mixture of short and 
long words and sentences should follow in an agreeable succession ; and 
every period should close with a graceful conclusion, called a cadence. 

e. The chief beauty of harmony in language is that wherein the 
sound is suited to the sense. Calm and gentle emotions are best ex- 
pressed in smooth, flowing words ; while harsh and angry feelings are 
best expressed in harshly sounding w^ords, and rough sentences. 

57. " Heaven opened wide 
Her ever-enduring gates, harmonious sound, 
On golden hinges turning." 

58. " On a sudden, open fly, 
With impetuous recoil, and jarring sound, 
The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder." 

59. '• When Ajax strives some rock's huge weight to throw, 
The line too labors, and the words move slow ; 



UNITY. 475 

Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain, 

Flies o'er the unbending corn and skims along the main.'* 

60. " Soft is the strain, when Zephyr gently blows, 
And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows ; 
But, when loud surges lash the sounding shore. 

The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar." 

/. No definite rules for suiting sound and sense can be given. In 
this matter, the student must be guided by observation and taste. 

14. Unity of composition refers to the singleness 
or simplicity of the construction of the sentences, as op- 
posed to looseness, and to complexity. It may be con- 
sidered ; firsts in reference to the Unity of subjects ; 
and second^ in reference to Unity of periods. 

First. The Unity of Subjects is preserved, when the General or Lead- 
ing subject of the narration is the subiect of those sentences, in which 
it is used as a producer, or as a receiver. 

61. After William had read the newspaper, he began to 
write a letter, but was interrupted by the noise. 

This is a compound contracted sentence, in which William is the Leading sub- 
ject; and is the subject, expressed in the first clause, personated in the second, 
i,nd understood in the third ; hence, in this example, the unity of the subject is 
pieserved. See the following, in which the Unity is violated ; — 

After William had read the newspaper, a letter was begun by him, but the noise 
disturbed him. 

62. Wolfe ascended the Heights of Abraham, where Mont- 
calm met him. A battle was fought. Wolfe was slain, and 
they slew Montcalm also. 

This example has no Unity, save that, which exists in the thought. Compare 
it with the following ; — 

Wolfe ascended the Heights of Abraham, where he was met by Montcalm 
A battle ensued, in which both were slain. 

Exception. Antithetical propositions are made more striking by vio- 
latino^ the Unity of the Subjects ; because, for the sake of harmony, 
antithesis in thought should be expressed by a verbal antithesis. 

63. " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 

We personates the producer, and they the receiver. By using them as subjects, 
we make an antithesis in the expression, and so add force to it. 

We have met the enemy, and have taken them, is unique, but too tame. 



476 UNITY OF PERIODS — ORNAMENT. 

Second. The Unity of Periods consists in putting such sentences only 
into a period as properly belong to it. 

a. The Unity of the period is often violated by crowding into it a 
sentence, which is so unconnected, that it should be in a distinct period. 

64. He describes, not to the eye alone, but to the other 
senses, and to the whole man ; for he puts his heart into 
his subject, writes as he feels, and humanizes whatever he 
touches. 

By putting for between these two periods, we make the second a sub-joined 
sentence of the first, to which it has nothing but a general relation. 

^D. Virtuous men are always the most happy, [hut] Vice 
strews the path of her followers with thorns. 

h. The Unity of a period is often violated by the introduction of a 
parenthesis. 

The parenthesis should be used very sparingly. It may be the off- 
spring of a quick and lively imagination ; but, as a general rule, it be- 
tokens a want of close thought. The use of the parenthesis is much 
less general now than formerly. 

66. "The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria (which 
were discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, catching some 
water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could 
not move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance, 
which turned out to be mercury) yield, every year, over three 
hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal." 

Corrected. The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, yield every 
year, over three hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal. 
They were discovered in 1797, &c. 

13. Ornament is that property of style, which ren- 
ders the narration more attractive and pleasing. (See 
p.464, §1.) 

a. Ornament depends in part on those elements of perspi- 
cuity, which we have just described as Harmony and as 
Unity ; but more especially does it depend on the use of 
Figurative Language. (See Chap. VI.) 

h. Perspicuity is the natural result of a clear and definite 
knowledge of our subject, and of the nature and uses of Ian- 



FORMATION OP A GOOD STYLE. 477 

guage ; ornament is the result of feeling, or sympathy with 
our subject. 

c. When the narrator seeks to convince and influence us 
by appealing to our reason, he is said to be intellectual in his 
style or manner of appealing ; but when he appeals to feel- 
ings or sympathies, he is said to be feeling or emotional in 
his style. 



Formation of a Good Style. 

1 . The Formation of a Good Style requires several 
things on the part of the speaker, or writer. 

First. Clear ideas of the subject; a definite hnowledge 
of its parts and of their relations to each other ; of its ori- 
qin ; its uses ; &c. 

In Book First, we have shown the origin of knowledge ; its differ- 
ent kinds ; the modes of acquiring and of using it, in a general man- 
ner. Now, if we wish to discuss any particular subject, we must first 
gain a knowledge of it, and the more definite our knowledge of it, the 
more perspicuous our style will be ; while the more our feelings are en- 
listed in it, the more ornamental our style will be. (See above, c.) 

Second. A familiar hnowledge of the nature and uses of 
sentential language in its Logical, Rhetorical, and Grammat- 
ical relations. 

This includes all that has previously been given in relation to thought, 
and to thought-language. In point of fact, it is in itself the whole sci- 
ence and art of Composition. 

Third. The hahit of composing frequently both orally and 
in writing. 

Practice makes perfect. One, who would speak well, must practise 
speaking; First, to become familiar with the attitudes, gestures, utter- 
ances, and cadences, which speakers use. For this purpose, the com- 
po:;itions of others may be employed. Second, in order to become fa- 
miliar with the sound of his own language and voice; — ''to see how it 
sounds.'* For this purpose he must use his own compositions. 

One, who would become an expert writer, must write and revise 
very carefully. After writing a composition, lay it aside until it is no 



478 FORMATION OF A GOOD STYLE. 

longer familiar, then re-write, criticise, and improve it. Do this espe- 
cially with reference to the great principles, concerning which the pub- 
lic mind, especially in our country, is almost always excited, and in a 
little time you will be able to speak and to write well concerning them. 
The greatest difficulty in public speaking is found in stating the princi- 
ples involved properly, and in their proper order. Prepare yourselves 
carefully in regard to the principles, which you intend to discuss. The 
illustrations will need but little attention comparatively. 

When, for the first time, an idea is clearly perceived, we should be 
careful to state it several times to ourselves, varying the words each 
time. This will give us a twofold advantage ; first, it will enable us 
to perceive the idea itself more clearly, and thus make us independent 
of certain set words, in which to express it.; and second, it will enable 
us to vary our style to suit the different occasions, or intellects, with 
reference to which a change of style may be demanded. At least, we 
should be able to define our ideas both synthetically and analytically, 

" I enjoin, that such as are beginning the practice of com- 
position, write slowly, and w^ith anxious deliberation. Their 
great object at first should be, to write as well as possible y 
practice will enable them to w^rite speedily. By degrees, 
matter will offer itself still more readily ; words will be at 
hand ; composition will flow ; every thing, as in the arrange- 
ment of a well-ordered family, will present itself in its proper 
place. The sum of the whole is this ; by hasty composition^ 
we shall never acquire the art of composing well ; by writing 
well, we shall come to write speedily." — Quintilian. 

Fourth. The style must he adapted to the subject^ to the 
occasion^ and to the capacity of the hearers, 

a. In Book First, we have shown that the Synthetic is the mode, 
in which instruction should be addressed to beginners, and the 
Analytic, the mode suited for an advanced course. This furnishes a 
good hint to the writer or speaker [teacher], as to the order of present- 
ing thoughts. 

" Nothing merits the name of eloquent or beautiful, which 
is not suited to the occasion, and to the persons to whom it is 
addressed. It is to the last degree awkward and absurd, to 
attempt a poetical, florid style, on occasions when it should be 
our business only to argue and to reason ; or to speak with elab- 
orate pomp of expression before persons, who comprehend 



FORMING A GOOD STYLE. 479 

nothing of it, and who can only stare at our unseasonable 
magnificence. These are defects not so much in point of 
style, as, what is much worse, in point of common sense. 
When we begin to w^ite or speak, we ought previously to fix 
in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at ; to 
keep this steadily in our view, and to suit our style to it. If 
we do not sacrifice to this great object every ill-timed orna- 
ment that may occur to our fancy, we are unpardonable ; and 
though children and fools may admire, men of sense will 
laugh at us and our style." — Blair, 

Fifth. Study carefully those things^ which are pleasing in 
the modes of expression, and in the use of words hy others, 
giving attention to all the peculiarities of the style ; not with 
a view of imitating it, hut in order to improve and to develop 
your own taste. 

We can not leave this subject without calling attention to the present 
mode of conducting recitations by written or set questions and answers. 
This practice, beside being in the main simply a memoriter process, is 
peculiarly hostile to the habit of composing. By it, the pupil is fur- 
nished with words to be repeated, and these words, being in contracted 
sentences, and contracted with reference to the questions, bring it to pass 
that the pupil is not exercised in using ; and hence is not enabled to use 
his own language, much less to understand that portion of the lan- 
guage of others, which he does use. Hence, pupils grow up in our 
schools ; first, with no habits of thought carefully developed ; second, 
not only with no command of language, but with an absolute dread of 
Composition. This would never be the case, if from the beginning 
the pupils were accustomed to express their own views and thoughts as 
freely in the school-room, as on the play-ground. 

Children require no special training in order to express their feelings 
and desires when out of school, because it has become habitual from 
practice ; but in the school-room, the practice is reversed ; and just at 
the end of the school-course, if ever, the student enters upon the study 
of Rhetoric and of Logic ; as, if no previous occasion for the use of 
these studies had occurred. 



4.80 PROSE — VERSE — - RHYME. 



Divisions op Composition. 

I Compositions are divided into Prose^ and Verse 
Compositions. 

S. Prose Composition is that, in which the language 
is used in its ordinary, or direct forms. 

3. Verse Composition is that, in which the language 
is arranged in lines, each of which contains a certain 
number of long and short syllables, called a Verse. 

Verse is from a Latin word meaning a turn, because at the end of 
each line or verse, the author returns to the bes:inning of the next verse. 
The term Verse should not be confounded with Stanza, as is often done. 

4. Two, or more Verses form a Stanza. A Stanza 
of tvw Verses is called a Distich [Dis tik] ; of three^ a 
Tristich ; of /o2^r, a Tetrastich; of Jive,2iPentastich; 
&G. A part of a Verse is a Hemistich, (p. 419.) 

The stanza may contain any number of verses, according to the 
pleasure of the author. When they are to be adapted to music, the 
stanzas should be uniform, or similar. 

5. Verse is divided into two kinds ; Rhyme, and 
Blank Verse. 

6. Rhyme is where verses end with syllables having 
similar sounds. 

a. Rhyme is said to be Perfect, when the latter part of the rhyming 
syllables are pronounced alike, and the former parts are unlike ; as — 

1. '' Such sights, as youthful poets dream 

On summer eves, by haunted stream^ 
h. Rhyme is said to be Imperfect, when the syllables are not pro 
nounced alike, or have a resemblance only. 

2. ••' As I suppose, had more heart's ease 

Than I, for I had no sickness, nor disease.'* 

3. " Shall only man be taken in the gross ? 

Grant only as many sorts of mind as moss'' 



BLANK VERSE — VERSIFICATION. 481 

c. Rhymes, occurrinf^ in the middle and at the end of the verses, are 
called Double Rhymes ; as — 

4. The soft light lay on the hills all day, 
As it flowed from the arch of heaven ; 
While many a ray afar did stray 
Through the valley and glen — 

d. Two verses, rhyming together, are called a Couplet; three, are 
called a Triplet. They may be the whole, or only a part of a stanza. 

5. " Four limpid fountains from the cliff distil ; \ 

And every fountain pours a several rill, V Triplet, 

In mazy windings, wandering down the hill ; ) 
Where blooms with vivid green are crow^ned, ^ Coup- 
Audi glowing violets cast their odors round." j let. 

e. Sometimes, by a change in the pronunciation of words, syllables 
cease to rhyme. This frequently makes old poetry appear to have im- 
pure rhyme. Thus, tea was pronounced tay; sea, say; &c. 

6. I am monarch of all I ^nvvey^ 
My right there is none to dispute, 

From the centre all round to the sea [sayj. 

7. Here thou, Great Anna, w^hom three realms obey^ 
Dost sometimes counsel take — and sometimes tea [tay]. 

7. Blank Verse is that kind of poetry, which has 
no Rhyme. 

a. Blank Yerse is fitted for subjects of a grave, dignified, or sublime 
character. Rhyme is better suited to gay, and light subjects. 

8. " O, unexpected stroke, worse than of death ! 

Must I thus leave thee. Paradise ? Thus leave 
Thee, native soil, these happy walks and shades, 
Fit haunt of gods ?" 

8. Verse-making is called Versification. Resolving 
a verse of poetry into its parts is called Scanning. 

9. Verses are divided into parts, called Measures 
or Feet., each of which contains either two^ or three 
syllables. 



482 MEASURES — PRIMARY — SECONDARY. 

a. There are four Dissyllabic Measures or Feet; — 

1. The Pyrrhic, two short syllables; as. of the | day. 

2. The Spondee, two long syllables ; as, long gone. 

3. The Iambus, a short and a long syllable ; as, diffuse. 

4. The Trochee, a long and a short syllable ; as, edict. 

h. There are eight Trisyllabic Measures or Feet ; — 



1. Tribrach ^ u ^, im | p5tently. 

2. 2I0II0SSUS , long gone bye. 

3. Anapest ■^ u -, to the sea. 

4. Dactyl - ^ -, dissipate. 



5. Bacchius ^ — , not lOng gone. 

6. Antibacchius — xj, my honor. 

7. Amphibrach ^ — -^^ condition. 

8. Amphimacer — ^ —, condescend. 



c. The quantity of the syllables in these feet depends on 
the accent, not on the quantity of the vowels. In English 
poetry, every accented syllable is long ; the unaccented are 
short. Repeat a line of poetry, and you will quickly perceive, 
that, in order to read it easily, the voice accents certain syl- 
lables, which are distinguished by the macron. 

10. These Measures or Feet are divided mio two 
classes; the Primary and the Secondary, 

1 1. The Primary Measures are those, with each of 
which a whole poem may be formed without the aid of 
the other feet. They are the Iambus^ the Trochee^ the 
Anapest^ and the Dactyl. 

S^. The Secondary Measures are those, of which 
whole verses are seldom or never formed. They are 
uso.d occasionally to vary a line. 

a. A yerse containino^ only one kind of feet is said to be Pure Meas- 
ure ; one, containing two or more kinds of feet, is said to be a Mixed 
Measure. 

13. A verse of one foot is called a Monoin'eter; 
of two feet, a Dim'eter; of three, a Trim'eter ; of four, 
a Tetram'eter ; of five, a Pentam'eter ; of six, a Hex- 
am' eter; of seven, a Heptam'eter ; and of eight, an 
Octam'eter line or Yerso. 



TAMBIO VERSES. 483 

a. When a verse has all of the syllahlcs required, it is said to be 
Gcatalectic; when it wants a syllable, it is said to be catalectic; when it 
has a syllable too many, it is said to be hypercatalectic. 

9. Iambic Verses. 
There are eight varieties of Iambic Verse. 

1 . Iambic Monometer. Complain. 

In vain. 

2. Iambic Dimeter, Some toil | and sow 

That wealth may flow. 

3. Iambic Trimeter. Uplift | your load | a^ain! 

Take up the mourning strain. 

4. Iambic Tetrameter. The mi2:h | ty mas | ter smiled, | to see 

That love was in the next degree. 
5 Iambic Pentameter, 

The ma | njr rend | the sky | with loud | applause, 
So Love was crowned, but Music won the cause. 

a. The Iambic Pentameter is called the English Heroic Verse, 

6. Iambic Hexameter. 

His heart | is sad, | his hope | is gone, | his light | is passed; 
He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 

b. This is usually called the Alexandrine Verse. It is generally used 
at the close of a Stanza, or of a Poem. 

7. Iambic Heptameter. 

In for ] eign realms | and lands | remote, | support | ed by | thy care, 
Through burning climes I passed unhurt, and breathed in tainted air. 

c. The English Iambic Heptameter is usually divided after the fourth 
foot and arranged alternately in Tetrameter and Trimeter Iambic ; usu- 
ally known as Common Meter. It may rhyme in couplets or alternately, 
or in the second and fourth verses only ; as — 

In foreign realms and lands remote, 
Supported by Thy care, 
Through burning climes, I passed unhurt, 
And breathed in tainted air. 

8. Iambic Octameter. This is usually divided into lines of four feet 
each, called Long Meter. 

Be thou, God, exalted high ! 
And as thy glory fills the sky, 
So let it be on earth displayed. 
Till thou art here, as there obeyed. 

d. The Short Meter is an Iambic Verse, having Trimeters in the first^ 
second, and fourth verses, and a Tetrameter in the third. 



484: TROCHAIC — A NAPESTIC-— DACTYLIC. 

Sow in the morn thy seed, ' 

At eve hold not thy hand — 

To doubt and fear aive thou no heed — 

Broadcast it o'er the land. 

10. Trochaic Verses. 

The Trochaic is used in six varieties. 

1. Chancriufr. 

2. Hoary | willow. 

3. Go where | ^\6vy \ waits thee. 

4. Under | neath the | sod low | lyinp^. 

5. Yirtiies, | brliiht^ninir | ray shall | beam for | ev6r. 

6. On a I mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | will6w. 

11. Anapestic Verses. 

1. They complain. 

2. In my rao:e | shall be seen. 

3. As his corse | to the ram | part we hurried. 

4. At the close | of the day | when the ham | let is stilL 

12. Dactylic Verses. 

1. Carefully. 
2. Was It not | pitiful. 
3. Wearing^ a | way in liis | youthfulness. 
4. Boys will an | ticipate, | lavish and | dissipate. 

13. Mixed Verses. 

1. Honor I and shame | from no | condl | tion rise. 
2. My right \ there is none | to dispute. 

In the followino' example, the poet has accommodated the sound to 
the sense very finely by changing from the Iambic to the Trochaic. 

14. Till once, 'tis said, when all were fired, 
Filled with fury, rapt, inspired. — Collins. 

A verse, which is deficient in syllables, may be considered either as 

tatalectic, or as hypermeter : as — 

15. In the | days of | old. 

If this be considered as a dimeter, it is dimeter, hy per meter ; but, if 
It be considered a trimeter, it is trimeter, catalectic. 

14r. Every verse of more than nine syllables re- 
quires such an arrangement of words, that the voice 
may pause without seeming to separate words belong- 



CESURAL — EPIC. 4:85 

ing to the same logical part ; this is called the Primary 
Pause^ or the CesuraL Sometimes other pauses of 
less importance occur, which are called Secondary 
Pauses^ or Secondary Ce surah, 

a. In Iambic pentameters, or Heroic verses, the Cesural should fall 
after the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable. 

16. So peaceful rests, || without a stone, || a name. 

That once had beauty, 11 titles, wealth, and fame — 
A heap of dust alone || remains of thee ; 
'Tis all thou art, || and all the proud | shall be ! 
The double bars signify the Primary ; the single bar, the Secondary CesuraL 

h. The Iambic hexameter or Alexandrine, requires the Cesural after 
the third foot. 

17. The dew was falling fast, |1 the stars began to blink; 

I heard a voice; it said, |1 "Drink, pretty creature, drink!'' 

c. As a general rule, the cesural should not fall in the same place in 
several successive verses, as this produces an unpleasant sameness. 

lo. The essential difference between prose and 
poetry is in the idea or thought. Poetry is the lan- 
guage of the emotions and passions. Hence, Jfigures 
and figurative language are poetic. 

a. All poetic thoughts are not expressed in verse; nor does all verse 
contain poetry. A little girl, looking up at the stars, said, '' If the 
outside of Heaven be so beautiful, how beautiful must the inside be !" 
So a German poet said, ''I love God and little children/' Both of 
these expressions are poetic ; real poetry. Too many mistake rhyme 
for poetry. 

16. The divisions peculiar to poetry, are the Epic^ 

the Pastoral^ the Lyric^ the Epigram^ and the Elegy, 

a. There are several varieties, as the didactic, satirical, descriptive, &c., 
which are common both to poetry and to prose, and will be so discussed. 

17. Epic Poetry is used in describing important 
characters and events for the purpose of moral instruc- 
tion. It is often called Heroic poetry, because poems 
of this kind are nam^tives of some leading character 
or hero. 



486 PASTORAL — LYRIC. 

a. The Epic is the most noble kind of poetry. It requires an ele- 
vated and finished style, and admits any degree of ornament, which is 
not hostile to sublijnity. Of the many, who have attempted Epic 
poetry, only a few have attained success. Milton^s Paradise Lost^ 
Tasso's Jerusalem, Virgil's ^neid, and Homer's Iliad, are regarded as 
the master Epics. 

h. The arrangement of the parts of the narrative, contained in an 
Epic, is called the Plot. This is made known to the reader by descrip- 
tions, which come from the poet directly, and by descriptions, which are 
given by him indirectly in the form of conversations and soliloquies 
through the hero and other personages. 

c. The causes of the narrative, and the means, by which the Plot is 
carried on, are called the Machinery of the Epic. Some mean by Ma- 
chinery, the parts borne by supernatural beings only. 

d. Little narratives, or descriptions, introduced for the sake of em- 
bellishment, are called Episodes. 

18. Pastoral Poetry describes the persons and 
events of rural life, for the purposes of entertainment. 
It is called Pastoral^ because it was first used to de- 
scribe scenes in the keeping of sheep, or shepherd-life. 

a. Pastorals present scenes neither too refined, nor yet too gross. 
Such as naturally might be supposed to occur in the quiet of a life 
spent in rural pursuits. 

6. A short Pastoral is called an Idyl. A conversation between 
shepherds or rustics is called an Eclogue. A Pastoral, in which herds 
and herdsmen are introduced, is called a Bucolic. 

• 19. Lyric Poetry includes such poems, as are espe- 
cially intended to be set to music, or to be sung. 

a. Lyric poetry is so called, because anciently the lyre was used to 
accompany the voice in singing. 

h. Lyrics are divided into various kinds, according to their subjects ; 

First. The Ode, a lyric celebrating some great achievement, or con- 
taining an apostrophe to some being, divine, or human; as, Collins' 
" Ode on the Passions ;" Dryden's ^' St. Cecilia's Day;" Wordsworth's 
" Ode on Immortality." 

Odes sung in honor of the gods, were called Hymns, or Psalms; 
names which are now applied to sacred songs only. Those, which ma,y 
be sung in parts, responsively, are called . 



BALL A D — SONNET. 487 

Second. The Ballad, a lengthy l^^ric describing some incident of an 
tiistorical, or of a romantic nature. 

Third. The Song, a short lyric describing some emotion, passion, or 
event, either sacred, or profane. If the song be of an amorous charac- 
ter, and of less than ten, or twelve lines in length, it is called a Madrigal, 

Fourth. The Sonnet, a lyric of fourteen lines, so arranged, that the 
first, fourth, fifth, and eighth ; the second, third, sixth, and seventh ; 
the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth ; and the tenth, twelfth, and four- 
teenth lines rhyme with each other. 

Sonnet to Sleep. — Wordsworth, 

18. A flock of sheep that leisurely pass by, 
One after one ; the sound of rain, and bees 
Murmuring ; the fall of rivers, winds, and seas, 
Smooth fields ; white sheets of water, and pure sky ; 
I thought of all by turns, and yet I lie 
Sleepless ! and soon the small birds' melodies 
Must hear, first uttered from my orchard-trees, 
And the first cuckoo's melancholy cry. 
Even thus last night, and two nights more, I lay 
And could not win Thee, Sleep ! by any stealth, 
So do not let me wear to-night away. 
Without Thee, what is all the morning's wealth ? 
Come, bless'd barrier between day and day. 
Dear mother of fresh thoughts and joyous health. 

a. The sonnet was derived from the Italian, in which it is used to 
express the most lofty and pure conceptions with the greatest strength, 
and pathos. In English, the rhymes of the last six lines frequently 
vary from the rule given above. 

The following sonnet embodies the reply of the Tyrolese in answer 
to an insulting demand of unconditional surrender by the French. 

19. "The land we, from our lathers, had in trust, 
And to our children will transmit, or die; 
This is our maxim, this our piety. 
And God and Nature say that it is just ; 
That which we would perform in arms we must! 
We read the dictate in the infant's eye. 
In the wife's smile, and in the placid sky, 
And at our feet, amid the silent dust 
Of them that were before ns. Sing aloud 
Old Songs — rhe precious music of the heart! 
Give, herds and flocks, your voices to the wind, 



488 EPIGRAM — ELEGY. 

Wliile we go forth, a self-devoted crowd, 

With weapons in the fearless hand, to assert 

Our virtue, and to vindicate mankind/' — Wordsivorth 

3©. The Epigram consists of a few lines, contain- 
ing a pun, a riddle, a conundrum, or any witty idea. 

20. '* With death doomed to grapple. 
Beneath this cold slab, he, 
Who lied in the Chapel, 
Now lies in the Abbey." — Byron. 

SI. The Elegy is a description of a dead person, 
3r of a death-bed scene, and hence, is of a sad and 
mournful character. A short Elegy, or inscription, is 
called an Epitaph, An Elegy, which is intended to be 
sung, is called a Dirge, All of these are sometimes 
called Exequies, 

a. One of the finest examples of elegies, and of epitaphs, in our 
language, is found in Gray's ''Elegy in a Country Churchyard." 

21. Epitaph on Hexky Kirk White. — Byron, 

No marble marks thy couch of lowly sleep, 
But living statues there are seen to weep ; 
Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 
Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom. * 

22. Dirge. — C. G. Eastman, 

Softly ! She is lying with her lips apart. 
Softly ! She is dying of a broken heart. 
Whisper ! She is going to her final rest. 
Whisper ! Life is growing dim within her breast. 
Gently ! She is sleeping ; she h^ breathed her last 
Gently ! While you are weeping, she to Heaven has past 

23 ExEQUT ON THE Death OF A Beloved Wife. — Henry King. 

Sleep on, my love, in thy cold bed, 

Never to be disquieted ; 

My last ''good night ! " Thou wilt not wake, 

Till I thy fate shall overtake ; 

Till age, or grief, or sickness, must 

Marry my body to the dust. 

It so much loves, and fill the room, 

My heart keeps empty in thv tomb. 



LETTER- WRITING. 489 

Stay for me tlierc ; I will not fail 

To meet thee in tliat hallowed vale ; 

And think not mucli of my delay, 

I am already on the way, 

And follow thee with all the speed 

Desire can make, or sorrow breed. 

Each minute is a short degree, 

And every hour a step toward thee. 

At night, when I betake to rest ; 

Next morn I rise nearer my West 

Of life, almost by eight hours' sail. 

Than when sleep breathed his drowsy gale. 



^Subjects of Composition. 

1. According to matter^ or subjects^ writings are 
divided into the Epistolary^ Historical^ Philosophical ^ 
Fictitious^ Dramatic^ and OratoricaL 

2. Epistolary Correspondence, or Letter-writing is 
needed by all persons, either for business, for friend- 
ship, or for instruction. It involves the following Rules. 

I. '^ We should write to an absent person, as we would speak to the same 
person if present.'' If at a loss for something to write, imagine the per- 
son just entering your presence, and then what you would say. 

II. Be as concise as possible vjithout being obscure. 

IIL Ai^oid display. Naturalness, or ease is the grace of letter-writing. 

IV. Avoid ambiguities. Not only may an epistle be ambiguous from 
the causes mentioned under perspicuity, but it may become ambiguous 
from being badly written, or blotted ; or being torn in opening, from 
having been sealed in the wrong place. 

Y. Preserve your own personality, and also that of the person addressed 
throughout the letter. 

From Mr. Brown to Miss Green. 

Mr. Brown's compliments to Miss Green, and begs that I may be 
permitted to accompany you to the opera this evening. 

This note begins in the tMrd person ; hence, 7 should be he ; and you should 
be her. In notes., the third person is generally used. 

YI. Answer a letter at the proper time, if at all. Many neglect the 
reply to a letter far beyond the proper time, and then are obliged to in- 
dite a long, and, to the reader, a tiresome apology. 
21* 



490 KINDS OF LETTEES. 

VII. In answering a letter, mention first the date of the letter, to which 
you send an answer ; as, In answer to yours of June 10 th, etc., or, Yours 
of June 10th was duly received; in answer, I beg leave to say, etc. 
Mention, second, the particular proposition, to which your reply is made; as, 
*' In regard to the terms for the dictionaries,^' etc. 

Note. — Such contractions, as are generally known, may be used. 

S. Letters may be considered as Letters of Busi- 
ness^ Intelligence^ Compliment^ or of Condolence^ 
Friendship^ Excuse^ and of Introductions. Small let- 
ters are called Notes^ or Billets. 

a. Business letters should be begun as directed in Rule YII. Say all 
that is necessary in connection with the business, so that the party ad- 
dressed may fully understand you in regard to it. 

b. Letters of Intelligence, or News-letters, are used to inform others of 
certain events or facts. In this, state nothing but v/hat you know to be 
true, unless you state it ^s dubious. 

" Tell not as news, what every body knows, 
And, new or old, still hasten to a close." — Cowper. 

If you write for any newspaper, or periodical, observe the following 
rules and advice, quoted from the New York Tribune. 

" When you have WTitten what you have to say, run it over and see 
if there be not some sentences that could be spared without serious in- 
jury. If there be, out with them ! We are often compelled to decline 
good articles because we can not make room for them. A half column 
has ten chances, where two columns have one, and three columns none. 

'' Try to disparage as little as possible, and where you must condemn, 
let your facts be stronger than your words. 

"When you assail any cause, or person, always give us your real 
name, which we shall give up to whomsoever has a right to demand it. 
He is a sneak and a coward who could ask us to bear the responsibility 
of his attacks on others. 

"Do not write on both sides of a sheet. 

" If you send us word that you ' have written in great haste, and have 
no time to correct,' we shall put your inanuscript quietly into the fire. 
Why should you throw on us the task of correcting your scrawl, when 
we are obliged to slight our own work daih^ for w^ant of time ? 

" Give us facts, iiicidents, occurrences, at the earliest moment, and 
we shall be grateful, though you wrote with a puddino-stick ; but if you 
attempt logic or sentiment, do it up right, instead of leaning on us/' 



LETTER-WRITING. 491 

c. Letters of Compliment, or of Condolence, should be so worded as to 
show our joy at the success, or, our sympathy with the misfortunes, 
and t^riefs of those addressed. They should be restricted to the subject 
of the letter, and seldom or never, may business be mentioned in them. 

d. Letters of Friendship should be familiar, and easy, containing 
only such intelligence of ourselves, as is sure to interest the party ad- 
dressed. At the same time, they should show that we feel an interest 
in whatever concerns the other party. 

e. Letters of Excuse are intended to explain, or to palliate some 
transaction. They should not be delayed a moment after we are aware 
that they are needed. 

/. Letters of Introduction are either to recommend one of our friends 
to another, or to recommend a person, whom we know, in the way of 
business, to others. These letters should be truthful, definite, and clear. 
First, state what you know personally to be true of the person's capacity, 
qualifications, etc. ; and then, in what respects you know by hearsay 
only, or do not knov/ at all. 

4. In writing letters, we must observe the Date^ 
Address^ Signature^ Postscript^ Foldings Superscript 
tion^ and Postage, 

a. Date a letter near the right-hand upper corner. A note may be 
dated under the writing near the left-hand side. 

6. The Address consists of the name, the title, if there be one, and the 
style. The name and title may be placed at the left on the next line 
under the date, or they may be under the written part at the left. In 
the former case, the style should be under them ; in the latter, the style 
takes the place of the name. 

According to the degree of familiarity, or equality, a gentleman may 
be styled Sir, Dear Sir, or My dear Sir ; a maiTied lady, Madam, Dear 
Madam, or My dear Madam ; an unmarried lady. Miss, Dear Miss, or My 
dear Miss, or the name may follow the style, as Miss A, In addressing 

relatives, the name of the relationship may follow My dear . The 

style of a business firm is Gentlemen, or Ladies ; of a clergyman, Rever- 
end, or Rev. ; of a physician. Doctor, or Dr. ; of a lawyer, or gentleman, 
Esqidr^y or Esq., etc. 

The oldest unmarried daughter is styled Miss Jones; the younger 
daughters. Miss Caroline Jones, Miss Sarah Jones, etc. An unmarried 
son. Master Jones, or Master William Jones. 

, Box 217, New York, \ 

March 1, 1860. \ 
Alexander J. Thompson^ Esq,; 
Dear Sir, 



492 ADDRESSES — SIGNATURES. 

Alhany, Apiil 16, 1861. 



Mrs. Laura Jones ; 
Dear Madam^ 



Miss Sarah Mead ; 

My dear Friend^ or 
My dear Miss Mead ; 



Wilson St., BrooMy7i, > 
August 19, 1864. y 



My dear Parents, or 

My dear Father and Mother ; 



At Sea, Septemher 10, 1864. 



Chicago, May 12, 1863. 
Messrs. Brown and Beauty ; 
Gentlemen, 



New York, July 5, 1864. 
Hon. A. L. Stevenson, 

Chairman of Finance Committee; 
^ir, 



c. The signature or subscription consists of the final paragraph and 
the name of the writer. Sometimes the writer's official title is to be 
placed under his name. 

Your obedient servant, 

John Jones, 

Adieu, my dear West, and believe me, yours ever, 

H. Walpole. 
Believe me ever, dear Miss Edgworth, 

Yours with the greatest truth and respect, 

Walter ScotL 

I pray God to bless you both, being ever your affectionate friend, 

B. Franklin, 
From your dutifid son, 

Trueman Wiseman. 
I have the honor to remain, 

Your obedient servant, 

William Cremarue, 
Deputy Corner of Supplies, 



LETTER-WRITING. 493 

d. Postscripts should not be used, if it be possible to avoid them. 
Before signing the letter, pause, and consider if all has been written, 
which you wish to Avrite. By no means defer inquiries for health, con- 
gratulations, or compliments to a postscript. It appeavs too much like 
forgetting them. 

e. Folding. If the sheet is to be sent in an envelope, first double it 
so that its width may be equal to the length of the envelope, then fold 
it crosswise with the fewest folds possible to suit the width. Sealing- 
wax is generally to be preferred to wafers, or the self-sealing envelope 
may be used. Letters of Introduction should not be sealed, if given to 
the party introduced. 

f. The Superscription, or Direction on the outside of the letter, con- 
sists of the name, the place of residence or town, county, and state. 
It should be neatly and distinctly written. In general, double titles 
should be avoided. That is, we may write Mr. Seth Sears, or Seth 
Sears, Esq. Mr. or Dr. Asa Jones, or Asa Jones, M. D. The Rev. 
Dr. John Adams, but not The Rev. John Adams, D. D. On the left- 
hand lower corner of Letters of Introduction, place the words. To intro- 
duce Mr. , Introducing Mr. . 

f. The Postage should be pre-paid on all letters pertaining to the 
writer's own business. When this is required by law on all letters, the 
writer should inclose a stamp, or stamps sufficient to pay the postage 
of the answer. If the letter be sent by a friend or acquaintance, as a 
matter of convenience, place in the left-hand lower corner the words, 

Politeness of Mr. , or Favored hy Mr. , or Care of Miss . 

The last is also used, when we wish to ask the attention of a third party 
to the delivery of a letter. 

Examples of Notes and Letters. 

Mrs. Jones requests the pleasure of the Rev. Mr. Brown and 
Lady* 6 company to dinner on Tuesday nextj at 5 o^ clock. 
75 Lexington Avenue. 
May M. 

Mr. and Mrs. Brown accept with pleasure Mrs. Jones^ polite 
invitation for Tuesday next. 
5 London Terrace. 
May 12. 

Mr. and Mrs. Brown'' s compliments to Mrs. Jones^ and regret 
that a previous engagement jncvents them from accepting her kind 
invitation, for Tuesday next. 
5 London Terrace. 
May 12. 



494 JOHNSON'S FAMOUS LETTER. 

United States Barque Release, ) 
Lievely, Isle of Disco, Greenland, July 9, 1855. ) 

Sir : — I have the honor to inform you of the arrival of the Arctic 
Expedition here on the 5th inst. after a most boisterous passage, during 
most of which we were enveloped in dense foj^s. "^ =^ # # # # 
^#=i^^^#=^ In conclusion, it affords me much pleasure to 
state that we are all well and in full spirits. 

Very respectfully, &c., your obedient servant, 
H. I. Hartstene, 
Lieut. Commanding Arctic Expedition. 
Hon. J. C. Dobbin, 

Secretary of the Navy, Washington, D. C. 

*' To the Right Honorable the Earl of Chesterfield ; 

*'My Lord, 
" I have been lately informed by the proprietor of " The "World," 
that two papers, in which my Dictionary is recommended to the public, 
were written by your lordship. To be so distinguished is an honor 
which, being very little accustomed to favors from the great, I know not 
well how to receive or in what terms to acknowledge. 

'' When, upon some slight encouragem.ent, I first visited your lord- 
ship, I was overpowered, like the rest of mankind, by the enchantment 
of your address, and could not forbear to wish that I might boast my- 
self, Le vainquer du vainquer de la terre ; that I might obtain that re- 
gard for which I saw the world contending. But I found my attend- 
ance so little encouraged, that neither pride nor modesty would suffer 
me to continue it. When I had once addressed your lordship in public, 
I exhausted all the art of pleasing which a retired and uncourtly scholar 
can possess. I had done all that I could ; and no man is well pleased 
to have his all neglected, be it ever so little. 

" Seven years, my lord, have now passed, since I waited in your 
outward rooms, or was repulsed from your door ; during which time I 
have been pushing on my work through difficulties, of which it is use- 
less to complain, and have brought it at last to the verge of publication 
without one act of assistance, or one word of encouragement, or one 
smile of favor. Such treatment I did not expect, for I never had a 
patron before. 

'* The Shepherd in Virgil grew at last acquainted with Love, and 
found him a native of the rocks. 

" Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man 
struggling for life in the water, and when he has reached the ground, 
encumbers with help ? The notice which you have been pleased to 
take of my labors, had it been early, had been kind ; but it has been 
delayed until I am indifferent, and can not enjoy it ; till I am solitary. 



HISTORICAL WRITINGS. 495 

and can not impart it; till I am known, and do not want it. I hope it 
is no very cynical asperity, not to confess obligations where no benefit 
has been received; or to be unwilling that the public should consider 
me as owing that to a patron, which Providence has enabled me to do 
for myself. 

** Having carried on my work thus far with so little obligation to any 

favor of learning, I shall not be disappointed though I should conclude 

it, if less be possible, with less ; for I have been long wakened from 

that dream of hope, on which I once boasted with so much exultation, 

*'My Lord, your lordship's most humble, 

*' Most obedient servant, 

*' Sam. Johnson.*' 

5, Historical Writings are accounts of past events 
and transactions. They include National History ^ 
Biography, Annals, Voyages, and Travels. 

a. National History, or History should comprise a true and impartial 
statement of occurrences whether considered as causes, or as effects ; a 
description of persons, and of characters ; and correct statements of 
times and places. (Chap. YI,) It admits all the styles of writing ; the 
dry, the plain, the neat, and the elegant. Kead Botta's, Robet-tson's, 
Prescotfs, Hume's^ and Bancroft's Histories. 

b. Biography is the history of an individual. If given by himself, it 
is called Autobiography. If given in connection with a notice of the in- 
dividual's decease, it is called an Obituary. Care should be taken not 
to disgust the reader by an undue, or over-wrought praise of the person 
described; in short, tell the truth. See BosweWs Life of Johnson; 
Abbott's Napoleon, 

NoTK. — The best history is that, which enables us to understand both 
national and individual matters, by a happy blending of National His- 
tory and Biography. Several such works have been written ; among 
which we recur with pleasure to JBancroft's History of the United States^ 
Macaulay's History of Etigland, D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation^ 
and last, but not least, the Bible, which, for the variety of characters 
presented, and for truthfulness of statement, is beyond comparison. 

c. Annals are records of facts, or events in the order of occurrence, 
or chronological tables. They differ from history in omitting the place, 
and ciiuses, or motives of actions. Very much, that is taught in the 
schools as history, is simply annals. 

d. Voyagis are journeys on water, and Traw/,? are journeys on land. 
Their chief excellence is in the correctness of their descriptions of peo"« 
pie, places, and objects. The writer should describe these so naturally, 



496 PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS — FICTITIOUS. 

that the reader may be enabled to form an imaginary picture of them. 
These writings should receive a larger share of attention, than is now 
given to them, especially by the young. While reading voyages, or 
travels, the map should be open at the reader's side, and the traveller's 
route should be traced very carefully. Read Humboldt's Travels, 
MacKenzie's and Columbus' Voyages, Ross' and Kane's Ai^tic Expedi' 
tions, Fremont's Travels ; and the many others, which you will find. In 
connection with the reading, try to recall what events transpired in the 
country visited. CSee Ch, YI,) 

6. Philosophical Writings include all compositions 
belonging to the sciences, and all investigations for the 
purpose of finding the truth. Its style should be the 
plain, or the neat; and the utmost attention should be 
given to the order of the subjects, and to the arrange- 
ment of their parts. According to a German defini- 
tion, " Philosophy is a systematic arrangement of 
facts:' (Chapter. YL) 

7 . Philosophical writings include Essays, Treatises, 
Reviews, Dissertations, or Disquisitions, Tracts, Theses. 

a. Treatise is applied to a complete or entire work on any subject. 
Thus, we have a Treatise on Surveying, Geometry, etc. 

6. An Essay is a short treatise, and is often applied to a production, 
which the author supposes may be incorrect. 

c. A Review is a statement of the plan, and style, of a written pro- 
duction, together with specimen extracts and a criticism of it. 

d. A Dissertation or Disquisition is a short treatise, setting before the 
reader the different views entertained concerning a disputed subject. 

e. A Tract is a short treatise on some special point, to w^hich it is en- 
tirely devoted. 

/. A Thesis is a proposition or statement, concerning which the 
writer :hallenges a discussion. It is also applied to short essays, -written 
to test the knowledge and skill of the writer. 

8 . Fictitious^ or Imaginative Writings include those, 
in which all the scenes, persons, and events, are purely 
the result of the imagination ; and also those, which 
are founded on real events, and in which the persons, 
and conversations onlv are fictitious. 



DRAMATIC WRITINGS. 497 

No species of composition has been so popular as the Fictitious, for, 
strano^e as it may appear, it includes by far the greater portion of all 
that has ever been written. It is alike useful for instruction, for admoni 
tion, for reproof, and for amusement. By its aid, character may be ex- 
hibited more truly; human emotions and passions represented more 
vividly; and the consequences of virtue, or of vice portrayed more ef- 
fectively, than by any presentation of the reality, except the writer be 
inspired. It admits all varieties of style, every degree of ornament, 
and is equally suitable for poetry, or for prose. 

9. Fictitious Writings include Novels, Allegories, 
Tales, Parables, Fables, &c. A particular description 
of which is not needed. 

10. Dramatic Writing is a species of Fictitious 
composition, in which the whole narrative is told by- 
different characters, who are represented as acting and 
speaking, and are called the Dramatis Personce. 

When written in poetry, it differs from an Epic poem, in that the 
author does not appear in it as a narrator, as he partly does in an epic. 

The Drama has always been a favorite kind of composition, but it 
has never been productive of good results in any degree cr*mmensurate 
with its capacity to produce them. It is now a great power perverted ; 
when it shall be restored to its true office — to teach men wisdom, and 
virtue — it will be one of the most effective modes of teaching. 

1 1 . Dramatic Writings are of two kinds ; Tragedy 
and Comedy, 

a. Tragedy represents great characters and events, and terminates m 
some fatal catastrophe, creating grief, and terror in the mind of the be- 
holder. 

h. Comedy represents some pleasing, or amusing characters and events, 
and always terminates happily. 

19. Dramas are subdivided into Acts, of which, as 
a general rule, there should not be less than three, or 
more than five. 

a. The Acts are divided into scenes ^ which assist in producing in the 
mind of the spectator, what is called, llie three Unities ; first. Unity of 
action, or an impression that only one leading or great transaction is 
presented; second, Unity of time, or the impression that the eve^Jt* all 



498 ORATORICAL WRITINGS. 

occurred about the same time ; and, third, Unity of place, or an impres- 
sion that all the events occurred in the same vicinity. Like the Epic, 
the Drama has its plot, management, machinery, and completion. 

h. A little Drama, mainly intended as an opportunity to exhibit 
scenes, and to entertain with fine music, is called a Melodrama; if of a 
comic character, it is called a Burletta ; if it mix things high and low, 
a Burlesque. 

c. A short comedy is called a Farce. It is presented after a tragedy, 
and hence, is often called an Afterpiece. 

13. A part of a drama, in which only one actor ap- 
pears and speaks, is called a Monologue^ or Soliloquy. 
If it be spoken as introductory to the play, it is called 
a Prologue; if spoken at the close of the play, an 
Epilogue, 

A conversation between two persons is called a Dialogue. 

14. Oratorical Compositions include such as are 
designed to be spoken or read before assemblies, and 
are generally known as. Orations, Addresses, Lectures, 
Pleas, Sermons, Discourses, &c. 

a. The ancients divided Oratorical compositions into three kinds ; 
the Demonstrative, the Deliberative, and the Judicial. The moderns 
divide them into E-loquence of Popular Assemblies, of the Bar, and of 
the Pulpit. We see no natural reason for any of these divisions. 

15. A regular Oratorical effort may be considered 
in six parts ; first.^ the Exordium or Introduction ; sec- 
ond^ the Statement and the Division of the subject ; 
third.^ the Narration or Explication ; fourth^ the Rea- 
soning or Arguments; fifths the Pathetic Part; and 
sixth ^ the Conclusion or Peroration. 

This order of arranging the parts is not always followed ; nor are all 
the parts themselves used in every address. 

Fi7^st. The Introduction or Exordium is mainly designed 
to secure the good-will, to excite the attention, and to remove 
i^ny prejudices, which may exist in the minds of those ad- 
dressed. 



RULES FOR INTRODUCTIONS. 499 

a. As a general tliino-, the o^ood-will of an audience is already secured 
toward the speaker, who has been previously designated as the orator, 
lecturer, or preacher. Whenever this may be fairly presumed, nothing 
more is needed. When a speaker is presented unexpectedly to the 
audience, the case may be different, and a modest, brief excuse for oc- 
cupying the time may be given. 

/;. In most instances, the hearers give a ready attention to a new 
speaker ; when this is the case, much is lost by those introductory re- 
marks, which many use merely from habit, or vanity. 

4 

c. When prejudices do exist in the minds of those addressed, they 
should be removed in the introduction, unless the speaker feels sure of 
being able to meet them in the subsequent parts. 

Caution. — Nothing tires an audience more, or disgusts it sooner 
than a useless introduction. Hence, having considered your introduc- 
tion, next consider whether or not the whole, or a greater part may be 
omitted ; and omit, Jirst, all that you see may be spared ; second, all, 
concerning the necessity of which, you entertain a doubt. Demosthenes 
used very short introductions, or none at all ; Cicero's were more lengthy ; 
in the Bible, very few are used. When you do use them, observe the 
following ; — 

Rules for Introductions. 

1. The Introduction should he easy and natural. 

In order to appear natural, an introduction should appear to grow 
out of the subject; hence, its composition maybe deferred until the rest 
of the speech has been arranged. A common fault wdth introductions 
is, that very many begin to talk about themselves, instead of the real 
subject, without seeming to observe that nothing could be more unin- 
teresting ^to their hearers. Cicero says, "When I have planned and 
digested all the materials, lastly it is my habit to think with what intro- 
duction I shall begin. For, whenever I have attempted to frame the 
introduction first, nothino: has ever occurred to me for that purpose, 
except it was foreign, trifling, or vulgar.*' 

2. The character and length of the introduction should he 
suited to the discourse that is to follow. 

There is a fitness in all things. Nothing could be more absurd, 
than a high sounding introduction to a trivial discourse ; or a sprightly 
introduction to a funeral sermon. If it be too lengthy, the audience 
may feel that " The mountain labored, and brought forth a ridiculously 
little mouse." 



500 RULES FOR INTRODUCTIONS. 

3. Let your introduction he modest and unassuming. 

An audience comprises many elements in which it is consciouslj 
superior to any one individual, and hence not only should the introduc- 
tion itself be molest, but every look, gesture, attitude, and tone of the 
speaker, should seem to acknowledge the superiority so far as may be 
done without sacrificing the speaker's own consciousness of self-respect, 
which, when properly maintained, serves to enhance the value of the 
respect, and deference, which he shows to his audience. There are 
occasions, however, on which boldness is not only admissible, but is 
absolutely required; as, in defence of human rights, virtue, innocence;' 
at such times let the speaker be bold, if need be, even to martyrdom. 

4. Make special efforts to have your expressions correct 
in every point. 

This is necessary in all parts of a discourse, but especially in the 
beginning, when the mind of the hearer is less occupied, and so more 
free to criticise the speaker's style, and manner, which for this reason 
should have, '* A correct plainness, and an elegant simplicity, so that it 
shall seem to be presented accurately rather than craftily." 

5. Let your introduction he calmly earnest. On the one 
hand^ avoid the appearaiice of listlessness, and on the other, 
the apj)earance of too much vehemence. 

Naturally emotions are excited as the discourse is carried forward ; 
but there may be occasions, when the bare mention of the subject will 
be sufficient to arouse the deepest feeling. 

6. Do not in the introduction anticipate any of the argu- 
ments^ or statements of the subsequent parts. 

The reason of this rule is, that, if stated in the preface, the charm of 
novelty is lost ; and, beside, the impression of a repetition is produced 
in the 'mind of the hearer. 

Second, The Statement and the Division of the subject. 
The statement or enunciation of the subject should be distinct 
and clear. For the Division of the subject see the Rules for 
Division or Classification on the sixty-ninth page. 

In philosophical addresses, it is generally best to announce the divis- 
ions or parts of the discourse ; but, in popular addresses, it gives the 
appearance of too much stiffness and formality. Whether the divisions 
be stated, or not, care should be taken by the speaker to follow out a 
well arranged classification, so that those, who do observe, may dis- 



NAHRATmN — REASONING — RULES. 501 

cover his plan, and thus he ciuihlcd to understand and remember the 
discourse. 

Third, The Narration or statement of the circumstances 
of the case, and the Explication or unfolding of the princi- 
ples and rules involved in it. These illustrate the state or 
condition of aifairs, and enable the hearers to appreciate the 
subsequent reasoning more easily ; hence, they should be a^ 
clear, concise, and truthful as possible. 

Fourth, The Reasoinngs or Arguments are intended to 
convince the hearers that some proposition is true, right, and 
good, or the opposite ; and, to lead them to adopt a certain 
course of action in regard to it. 

a. When the arguments are advanced before the statement of the 
proposition is made, the speaker is said to reason Analytically ; when 
the statement precedes the arguments, he is said to reason Synthetically 

Rules for Reasonings or Arguments. 

1. Mahe a proper selection of your arguments ; first, as 
to Jitness or strength ; and second, as to their number. 

Some arguments may be true in themselves, and yet it may be in- 
judicious to present them, because of some association connected with 
them ; others may be weak, or frivolous, etc. Too many arguments 
should not be presented at once. It is a safe rule, to present no more 
arguments, than suffice to produce conviction. 

2. Arrange your arguments according to the nature^ and 
according to the strength of each. 

a. According to nature or land, we have three classes of Reasons or 
Arguments; first, those which show that a statement or proposition is 
true or false ; second, those which show that the thing proposed is right 
or wrong ; and third, those which show that the thing proposed is profit- 
able or unprofitable. 

6, In arranging according to the strength of the arguments, we are 
governed by the relative force of the arguments themselves. If the 
arguments vary in strength, arrange those of each class so that each 
shall be stronger than its predecessor, thus making your reasoning 
climacteric. 

If only two be strong, place one of them first, and the other last; 
making the weaker ones intermediate, 



502 PATHETIC — RULES. 

If on y one be decidedly strong, place it first 

If all be strong, present them as distinctly as possible ; but, if all be 
weak, present them as compactly as possible. , 

Fifth. The Pathetic or Appeals to the Passions is the ad- 
dress to feelings in order to produce action. 

Mankind are convinced by appeals to the reason and judgment, but 
they are moved to action by appeals to the feelings, or passions, because 
these are the main-springs of human actions. 

Rules for the Pathetic or Appeals to Passions. 

1. Consider first, whether the subject admits of an ap^ 
peal ; and second, the place, or part in the discourse, at 
which it should he made. 

The hearers must feel that an appeal is both proper and well-timed, 
or they may be disgusted by its introduction. 

2. Introduce a pathetic appeal without previous notice to 
the hearer. 

The more naturally and easily an appeal to the feelings is brought 
into a discourse, the more acceptable and efficacious it will be. 

3. Be sure to distinguish between an argument to show 
your hearers that they ought to he moved, and an appeal to 
their feelings. 

The argum.ent is merely a preparative, the appeal is the thing itself. 
" To every emotion or passion, nature has adapted a set of correspond- 
ing objects ; and, without setting these before the mind, it is not in the 
power of any orator to raise that emotion. I am warmed with grati- 
tude, I am touched with compassion, not when a speaker shows me 
that these are noble dispositions, and that it is my duty to feel them ; 
or when he exclaims against me for my coldness and indifference. All 
this time, he is speaking only to my reason, or conscience. He must 
describe the kindness and tenderness of my friend ; he must set before 
me the distress suffered by the person, for whom, he would interest 
me ; then, and not until then, my heart begins to be touched, my grati- 
tude, or my compassion begins to flow." 

4. Never attempt to move others, while you yourself are 
unmoved. 

Nothing, save the genuine feeling, can suggest the thoughts suitable 
to affect the feelings of others. Hence, the necessity that the narrator 



CONCLUSION — RULES. 503 

should mingle much with his fellow-beings, and should jilways cultivate 
feelings of real sympathy with their distresses. " The internal emotion 
of the speaker adds a pathos to his words, his looks, his gestures, and 
to his whole manner, which exerts a power almost irresistible over 
those in his presence/' 

5. Study carefully the -language^ utterance, attitudes^ and. 
gestures of the passions. 

In doing this, we must observe closely the language, and conduct 
of those affected by any passion or emotion. The language of passion 
is loud, strong, and varied; the actions quick, and violent; the head is 
now thrown back, now sidewise, and now thrust forward. The lan- 
guage of grief is low, weak, and monotonous ; the movements slow and 
irregular; the head and body are bent forward; — "bowed down with 
grief." 

6. Do not attempt to introduce any thing of a nature for- 
eign to the pathetic in this part of your discourse ; above 
all, beware of all attempts to reason here. Nothing sooner 
extinguishes pathos. 

7. Do not try to keep up the pathetic too long in regard to 
the same idea. 

These emotions are too violent to be lasting; and hence, having 
been duly excited, and indulged, it is proper that the feelings be per- 
mitted to subside. In doing this, glide into a less exciting train of 
thought, as quietly, and smoothly as possible. 

Sixth. The Conclusion or Peroration is the passage, which 
prepares the minds of the hearers for the end of the discourse. 

There is a certain note in music, called the Leading or Pre'paratory 
note, because it leads to a termination, or prepares the ear for the re- 
ception of the final note of a strain. So, in a train of thought, there 
are certain leading or preparatory ideas, which prepare the mind for the 
cadence. Sometimes, it is the pathetic part ; sometimes, the summing 
up of the arguments ; and sometimes, it is an inference drawn from the 
whole discourse. 

E-ULES FOR A Conclusion. 

1. Stop when you are through, but not too suddenly. 

There is always one good point, at which to stop. If this be passed 
the difficulty of finding another is increased, and much of the grace of 
the discourse is lost. 



504 READING OR DELIVERY. 

2. Nevei^ ?^^^l/^ your hearers more than once, that you tTi- 
tend to stop. 

We have known speakers to hang on to a subject after the uneasi- 
ness of the audience had become so apparent^ that the speaker deemed 
it necessary to attempt a compromise by promising to stop in a little 
while. Others excite this feeling by a "Zors//^," followed by "iw cow- 
clusion," and then ending only after a ^' finally,''^ but to the great relief 
of the audience. " We should endeavor to go off with a good grace ; 
not to end with a languishing, and drawling sentence ; but to close 
with dignity and spirit, that we may leave the minds of the hearers 
warm ; and dismiss them with a favorable impression of the subject, 
and of the speaker.^' 



Reading, ok Delivery. 

1 . Reading or Delivery includes all utterances of 
words. It may be considered as to the Reading Ap- 
paratus, the Management of the voice, and the Gestures. 

2. The Reading Apparatus especially includes the 
walls of the chest, the lungs, the windpipe, and the 
mouth. 

a. The Walls of the Chest are composed of the breast-bone, the ribs, 
and the upper part of the bones of the back, together with the ligaments 
that unite, the muscles that move, and the skin that covers them. 

The walls of the chest by rising cause the inflation of the lungs with 
air^ and by falling again cause its expulsion from the lungs. 

h. The Lungs are minute air-cells, which serve the purposes of bel- 
lows in supplying air to the organs, used in producing sounds. 

Caution. — Yery few persons breath correctly ; perhaps, not more than 
one in fifty I The general fault is, breathing too frequently, or inhaling 
too little breath at each inspiration. To remedy this, before dressing in 
the morning, raise the arms above the shoulders, and draw in as deep 
and full breathings as possible. This at first will cause giddiness, if 
your previous mode of breathing has not been correct. After resting, 
try it again. Try it every day. The lungs need this air-^ath more, if 
possible, than the face and hands need the water-bath. Breathing in 
this way, when you feel disposed to cough, will very soon " cure the 
cold ;" that dreadful pioneer of Consumption. 



MANAGEMENT OF THE VOICE. 505 

c. The Windpipe contains the muscles, on which the air in its out- 
ward passage produces the sounds. 

Note. — Sounds, except in ventriloquism, can not be produced 
while the air is entering the lungs. Stuttering is caused by trying to 
speak while inhaling the breath. If a stutterer be cautioned not to at- 
tempt to speak while inhaling; or, to breath out when he wishes to 
speak, the worst case may be cured in a few hours. 

The muscles, in the upper part of the windpipe and in the back por- 
tion of the mouth, produce the sounds, or tones, and are called the Or- 
gans of Voice. 

The lips, teeth, tongue, and forward portion of the mouth are called 
the Organs of Speech. By them the sounds are divided into shorter por- 
tions representing words. 

In order to read well, great pains should be taken to secure a health- 
ful and proper development of the Reading Apparatus. As an induce- 
ment to this, it should be borne in mind, that every exercise connected 
with reading, when properly directed, is healthful and life-giving. 

3. The Management of the Voice refers to the Use 
of the Tones, to the Movements or Cadences, to the 
Emphases, and to the Accents, as these are affected by 
the sentiment expressed. 

First. The Tones of the voice comprise its key or pitch, 
rhythm, and force. 

a. The general varieties of the key or pitch are the Historic or 
Natural, the Emotional, and the Passionate. 

I. The Historic Key is used in ordinary intercourse, or at least in 
such intercourse, as that which persons use without unusual excitement, 
or unusual listlessness. 

1. Historic Key, It is a very fine day, Mrs. Brown ! 

II. The Key of the Emotions is used when persons are somewhat in 
earnest, yet without being very much excited. 

a. When the emotions are unpleasant, or painful, the key is lower 
than the Historic ; and hence, is called the Grave Key. 

2. Grave Key. My brother is very sick, and we fear he 
will die. 

6. When the emotions are pleasant, or cheerful, the key is raised 
above the Historic, and is called the Gay Key, 

3. Gay Key, Come, let us have some merry sport 

22 



506 KEY OP THE PASSIONS. 

III. The Key of the Passions is used, ^Yh^n the speaker is very much 
aroused, or excited. 

The difference between an emotion and a passion, as here used, is 
that an emotion is an excited feehng ; while a passion is a feeling still 
more excited. According to this, the emotions and passions differ in 
degree, not in quality. A passion is an intensified emotion. 

a. When the passion is of a painful, or severe kind, the key is be- 
low the Historic, and sometimes even lower than the Grave. If not 
lower, it is always stronger; hence, it is called the Intensified Grave 
Key. 

4. Intensified. Grave Key. " Speak of Mortimer ? 
Zounds ! I will speak of him ; and let my soul 
Want mercy, if I do not join with him ; 

Yea, on his part, I'll empty all these veins. 

And shed my dear blood, drop by drop, i' the dust, 

But I will lift this down-trod Mortimer 

As high i' the air, as this unthankful king — 

As this ingrate and cankered Bolingbroke." 

6. When the Passion is joyous, the key is above the Historic and 
more intensified than the Gay Key ; hence, it is called the Intensified 
Gay Key. 

5. Intensified Gay Key. Ha ! ha ! ha ! A capital joke ! 
Capital ! capital ! Now give us another ; I' faith ! we're well 
met to-night, and a good time we'll have of it ! 

KuLE. A Primary sentence should he read in the hey re- 
quired hy its sentiment ; its secondary^ in a key slightly helow ; 
its sub-secondary^ in a hey a trifle helow the secondary^ &c. 

4. The first quality of good Reading is that, which 
causes it to be fully and distinctly understood ; the 
second is that, it instructs and moves the hearer. 

5. In order to be understood, the speaker must at- 
tend to four things ; loudness of voice ^ distinctness.^ 
slowness^ and propriety of pronunciation. 

a. In order to speak loud, it is only necessary to increase the fyrce 
of the voice, not to raise its pitch. 



GESTURE — FINALLY. 507 

6. Distinctness refers to the enunciation of the words, and to the ar- 
ticulation of the letters and syllables. 

Words are badly enunciated, when they are spoken indistinctly, or 
when mispronounced. They are badly articulated, when their letters 
or syllables are improperly joined. 

c. The faults of most youngs speakers, or readers, are ; first, utter- 
ing the words with too great rapidity ; second, raising the pitch instead 
of adding force to the voice ; third, neglecting the emphases and accents. 

6. Gesture includes attitude, position, and the mo- 
tions of the hands. 

a. The Attitude should be erect, easy, and free. In this respect, 
those, who speak without notes, have the advantage of those, who use 
them. 

6. The Position should be taken at that point, which brings the most 
of the hearers before the speaker. The speaker may turn one quarter 
to the right, or to the left by bringing the right, or the left foot behind 
the other. Much change of place should be avoided if possible. 

c. The Gestures should be easy and free. Avoid vertical motions 
with the hands. Practise gestures before a looking-glass, and criticise 
yourself; practise them also before a friend, or before an association, 
whose object is mutual benefit in criticising each other. 

Let your dress be simple and neat. In addressing an audience, 
never wear gloves, if your hands are fit to be seen, and do not exhibit 
jewelry, unless you deal in it. 

Note. — It was a part of the original plan to introduce a full set of 
exercises in speaking, which subsequent reflection led us to omit ; not 
because we deemed them unimportant, but because such exercises may 
be found in most of the numerous School-Readers. The pupils should 
be thoroughly and frequently exercised in them. 

Finally, Study Nature. Observe the manner, in which 
persons act and speak in daily Hfe. The Book of Nature is 
to one, who can read it, the great and true source of a knowl- 
edge of human actions and utterances. The Book of Grace 
is the best source, whence you can draw instruction as to the 
nature of the human soul, and the influences, which develop 
and form human character. To understand others, however, 
you must begin with studying yourself — your own intellects; 
for as these act, so you must assume are the actions of all 
other men's intellects produced. 



508 THINKING AND LANGUAGE. 

TTe close the subject of Sentential Lanofiiage, having come 
again to the place, whence we started ; namely^ knowing some- 
thing you will need begin to think ; thinking, you wall desire 
to communicate ; communicating, you will need the ability to 
use language ; using language, you will be impelled to gain 
more knowledge ; and gaining more knowledge, you will seek 
and also find new facilities and new beauties in the divine 
gift of language ; and thus, each shall only and forever lead 
and assist you while attempting new conquests in the other. 
But in addition to this, let us say, be not satisfied with that 
improvement, which stops with yourself; as ye have freely 
received, so freely give, assured that " He that watereth 
others shall be watered also himself." 



THE ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The English Language, in its present form, is compara- 
tively of modern date ; having been derived from several 
other languages, whose origin is lost in antiquity. It is 
probable, however, that they had a common origin ; that is, 
are varieties or dialects of one Primitive Language, 

Indeed, we know this to be true, because it is distinctly 
so stated by the sacred historian, and also a sufficient reason 
is given for destroying that sameness of speech in the ac- 
' count of the confusion of tongues at the tower of Babel. 
The sameness or similarities existing between the different 
languages and the fact that all of them point toward " the 
cradle of the human race" as their origin are the results, 
which must naturally have. followed the causes stated in the 
biblical narration. Those varieties, with which we are di- 
rectly concerned in tracing the origin of the English Lan- 
guage, are the Celtic, the Gothic^ and the Greek, 

Some knowledge of that portion of the history of these 
languages, especially of that describing the sentential forms, 



\ CELTIC — GOTHIC. 509 

and the kinds of words, which each contributed to assist in 
the formation of the English, is necessary for the student be- 
fore beginning the study of those analyses, which follow thia 
history. 

a. The Celtic Language was used by the people of Britain 
at the time of its invasion by the Romans under Juliups Ca3- 
sar, which took place in the fifty-fifth year before the Chris- 
tian era. It is still used in some parts of Wales, Scotland, 
Ireland, and in Brittany or Bretagne. From it also the most 
of the languages in the Western and South-western parts of 
Europe are derived. ^ 

The Celtic language has contributed to the English; — 
First. Some names of Persons and Places; as, Cobb, Jones, &c» 

Thames, Kent, &c., and names beginning with Mc, Fitz., &c. 

Second. Some names of Common things; as, bran, darn, flannel, 

gruel, tartan, plaid, &c. 

Beside the ordinary purposes of language, the Celtic was 
used in oratory and in poetry. Caesar says that their Druids 
or priests knew how to WTite, but used it only as a means 
of concealing knowledge. This may have formed another 
item in the Celtic contribution to the English ; otherwise the 
English has produced its own Druids. 

The only specimens of Celtic eloquence occurring before the 
Saxon invasion, which have reached us, are the harangues of 
Queen Boadicea, of Carac^'tacus, and of Galga'cus, a chieftain 
conquered by the Roman general, Agricola, in the seventy- 
eighth year of the Christian era. 

The Romans taught the Britains the arts of writing, agri- 
culture, and architecture, and thus paved the way for the in- 
troduction of Christianity. The only monuments of this in- 
vasion are a few geographical names ; as, Lincoln, Leicester. 
&c. coin signifies colony ; cester, a camp, 

b. The Gothic is supposed to have originated in Asia, and 
to have been brought into Europe by the barbarous tribes, 
who overran and occupied the country. It is not now used 
in its primitive form, but exists in several varieties or dia- 



510 ANGLO-SAXON. 

lects, of which the principal are the Teutonic or Germanic^ 
and the Scandinavian, 

The Teutonic or Germanic dialect was used by the tribes 
inhabiting Germany, among the most powerful of whom were 
the Saxons and the Angles, who came into Britain in the 
four hundred and fiftieth year of the Christian era, and, ex- 
terminating a large portion of the native Celts, drove the re- 
mainder into the mountains of Wales and Scotland. The 
Angles gave their name to the conquered portion, Angleland^ 
which was afterward modified to England; the Gothic dialect 
^— the Germanic or Teutonic — which both people had helped 
to introduce, was called the Anglo-Saxon Language. 

The Anglo-Saxon contributed to the English language; — 

First. Its modes of constructing sentences, and its peculiar idioms. 

Second. About five eighths of all the words now used in the English 
language. Twenty-three thousand in about forty thousand. They are 
short, easily understood, and have but few changes of form. 

Third. The greater part of our grammatical forms. 

Fourth. '^ It is the language of business ; of the counting-house, the 
shop, the market, the street, the farm ; and — however, miserable the 
man who is fond of philosophy, or abstract science, might be, if he had 
no other vocabulary but this — we must recollect that language was 
made not for the few, but the many ; and that portion of it which en- 
ables the bulk of mankind to express their wants and to transact theii 
affairs, must be considered of at least as much importance to the gen- 
eral happiness, as that, xAiioh serves the purpose of philosophical sci- 
ence.'^ 

Fifth. Almost all our common names of material objects and of theii 
properties; as the names of — 

Terrestrial Objects ; Land, hill, dale, wood, water, sea, stream, &c. 

Natural Phenomena ; Heat, cold, frost, light, lightning, thunder, 
rain, hail, snow, sleet, &c. 

The Heavenly Bodies ; Sun, moon, stars. 

The Elements ; Earth, fire, water. [Air is Latin. 

The Seasons ; Winter, spring, summer. [Autumn is Latin. 

The Natural Divisions of Time ; Year, month, week, day [h., min., 
sec, Lat.j, morning, sunrise, midday, noon, evening, sunset, twilight, 
night, midnight. 



ANGLO-SAXON. 511 

Sixth. '^ It is the language of our national proverbs, in which so much 
of the practical wisdom of a nation resides, and which constitute the 
manual of * hobnailed' philosophy." 

Seventh. It furnishes the strongest terms, in which to express the 
passions, anger, contempt, rage, &c. ; and also to express satke, in- 
vective, wit, humor, &c. 

Eighth. It gives us names for the social relations ; as, father (feeder)y 
mother (producer), husband (provider), wife (weaver), child, son (hope), 
daughter (grace), brother (protector), sister (hind), kindred, friends. 

NintJi. It names those objects, which suggest the social relations, 
as, home, roof, rooftree, fireside, hearth, &c. 

Tenth. It names the emotions or feelings ; as, love, anger, hope, fear, 
sorrow, shame, guilt, &c. 

Eleventh. It names the outward signs of the emotions or feelings ; as, 
the smile of love, the frown of anger, the brightness of hope, the shynest 
of fear, the tear of sorrow, the blush of shame, the gloom of guilt, &c. 

Twelfth. It is the language of the Bible. To the Bible we are mainly 
indebted for the preservation and development of the Anglo-Saxon ; 
and to the Anglo-Saxon we are indebted for the simple and familiar 
dress of the truths of the Bible. By a careful computation, it has been 
found that twenty-eight twenty-ninths [||] of all the words in the 
Bible are of Saxon origin ;=^ hence, the Bible, apart from its spiritual 
teachings, is still the best book of study for the student, who would 
learn the strongest and simplest language ever spoken, or written, 
and we should be slow to admit those modern innovations, which mili- 
tate against its authority as a standard of the Anglo-Saxon Language. 

The Saxons were taught Christianity by the Eomans, and 
from these they also learned the art of writing. They 
adopted the Latin alphabet, to which they added two new 
characters ; one to represent th^ and the other, w. The intro- 
duction of letters awakened a zeal for learning, and laid the 
foundation of what is now known as the " Saxon Literature.' 
It consisted of poetry, fictitious narrative, histories or chroni- 
cles, religious writings, and translations from the Latin 
authors, and from the Sacred Scriptures. 

^ Next to the Bible, in the use of Saxon words, are the writings of 
Dean Swift, eio:ht ninths being Saxon ; Milton, seven eighths ; Shak- 
speare, five sixths ; Addison and Thomson, four fifths ; Johnson, three 
fourths ; Pope and Hume, two thirds. 



512 SCANDINAVIAN— GREEK. 

Ai nrst, the Saxon writers wrote in the Latin ; among these 
are Gitdas, Aldhelm, and the Venerable Bede. Afterward 
they began to use the Saxon ; among the first of these were 
the " elaer'^ and the " second Caedmonr 

Among the Saxon kings, Alfred the Great was conspicuous 
for his wisdom, knowledge, and piety; and also for his. zeal 
in providing his subjects with the means of scientific and re- 
ligious instruction. He established the present University at 
Oxford. Alfred occupied the throne for a period of twenty- 
eight years ; from 872 to 900, A.D. 

The Saxon language continued to be used in England un- 
til the Norman Conquest in 1066. 

The Scandinavian dialect of the Gothic (see p. 5l0) was 
used by the tribes occupying the Scandinavian Peninsula, 
now comprising Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. These peo- 
ple, who are known in history as the Norsemen^ or Danes^ came 
into England in the year 1017, and conquering the Saxons, 
whom they foand there, held possession for twenty-four years, 
or until 1041. As their language was only another dialect 
of the Saxon, they did not change the latter, except by ad- 
ding a few Words peculiar to their own dialect ; but even these 
are now gei^crally known as a part of the Saxon Language. 

The ultimate effect, of which the Danish incursion was the 
first and prmcipal cause, was to bring in the Normans and 
with these the Norman French^ which took place in 1066, as 
we have said above. How this came to pass, we will de- 
scribe briefly in the history of the Greek elements of the 
English langi^age. 

c. The Greek Language was brought into Europe by the 
immigration from Asia of the people using it; and was for a 
long time the language of eloquence, poetry, history, and 
also of a commercial, a warlike, and a victorious people 
These causes served to make it known and to give it currency 
among the surrounding nations ; and especially was it imi- 
tjited by the Homans both in its idioms and in the Grammat- 
icrsl forms of its words. This prevailed to such a degree 
that the Roman language — originally a mixture of the 



LATIN — NORMAN — FRENCH. 513 

Celtic, and of the Sabine and the Latin tongues, from the 
last of which it took its name — came to be only a dialect 
of the Greek. 

The Romans were decidedly a warlike people, and wher 
ever they carried their arms they also carried their lan- 
guage ; which, as much as was possible on their part, they 
caused the conquered nations to adopt. At the time he en- 
tered Britain, Caesar was engaged in subjugating Gau 
[France], and that part of Germany, which was afterward 
known as Normandy, The Romans not only succeeded in 
conquering these people, but also in bringing them to adopt 
so large a number of Latin idioms and words, as to lay the 
foundation of that change in the Gallic language — the Cel- 
tic — which finally resulted in the modern French ; and to 
change the Norman language — the Gothic — into that which 
was afterward known as the Norman French, Things were 
in this condition, when in 1066, William, Duke of Norman- 
dy, invaded England and ascended the throne as William L, 
the Conqueror, 

In order to wean the people from their Saxon customs and 
laws, William caused the Norman French to be used as the 
language of the Court, and ordered that all the laws should 
be written in it, and that all law-suits, proceedings, and peti- 
tions, should be presented in it. By this act, he compelled 
all the Saxons holding property to become familiar with the 
Norman, as the language of business ; and these Saxons soon 
learned it. In addition to this, William appointed Normans 
to all offices of honor and trust in his government, filling the 
menial offices with Saxons. This course not only compelled 
all aspirants for court-favors to become familiar with the Nor- 
man, but rendered its use a mark of superiority in wealth, 
or in station, or in both ; while it made the Saxon a sign of 
servitude. Beside all this, the Norman, being the language 
of the Court, became the fashionaMe language, as it really 
had been ever since the accession of Edward the Confessor, 
who had learned it while a refugee in Normandy, whither he 
had fled from England, in 1043, to escape from the Danes. 
22* 



514 SAXON— NORMAN — ENGLISH. 

"VYiiliam also ordered that all the pupils in the Schools should 
be taught the Norman, to translate their Latin into it, and 
should be required to converse only in these languages. Thus 
we find power, wealth, position, business, fashion, and educa- 
tion, all arrayed against the Saxon ; and yet it maintained 
its ground, because it bad become the language of the senses 
and also of the heart. 

The sturdy, old Saxons clung to their native tongue, and 
for nearly a century the common people used a language al- 
most unknown to their rulers, while the language of the ru- 
lers was almost unknown to the common people. By de- 
grees, however, each began to learn and adopt certain parts 
of the others. The Saxon furnished its rich stores of sim- 
ple and expressive, but often harsh and blunt terms — weD 
suited for business, and straightforward, outspoken statements 
of facts ; but lacking terms for the abstract, the scientific, 
and the imaginative ; the Norman furnished a rich store of 
smooth, polished, and refined terms — suitable for a refined 
and elevated social intercourse, for the abstract and the sci- 
entific ; and the extensive array of imaginative works, which 
it already possessed. These languages were naturally fitted 
to be companions, and such they would have been, if no 
forcible means had been used to unite them. 

The interchange and adoption went forward, and in 1150 
we find the two sufficiently blended to form a distinct lan- 
guage, although evidently in a state of transition ; hence, 
the form which it assumed from 115U to 1250 has been called 
the Semi-Saxon. After this, it assumed those more definite 
characters, by which it is now known. The nobles and even 
the Norman kings had been compelled to master it in self-de- 
fence ; and it has ever since been known as the English 
Language. Edward III., in the year 1362, ordered the Eng- 
lish to be used as the language of the Court, and as a substi- 
tute for the Norman in all legal proceedings and documents ; 
from such sources and conflicts the English language, the sim- 
plest and most philosophical ever used by the human race^ 
had its origin. 



GREEK — LATIN. 515 

The first work of any importance, written in the English 
language after its adoption by Edward III., was John Wick- 
lilFe's translation of the Bible in 1383. 

We have already described one of the processes, by which 
the Greek, through the Latin and Norman, became an ele- 
ment of the English ; there are yet two other ways in which 
it also contributed ; the one through the Latin ; the other 
directly from itself. In this, as in the former case, we regard 
the Latin simply as a dialect of the Greek. 

The Romans during the time of the invasion gave names 
to certain places, which names were retained by the Saxons 
and subsequently became English. A second contribution 
was furnished by the introduction of Christianity, and with 
it the Latin, in which all the services of the Church were 
conducted until about the fifteenth century. " Even the lan- 
guage of Christian prayer was that of abolished paganism." 
This use of the Latin caused very many words to be adopted 
directly from it by the nations where it was so used ; as, pas- 
tor, minister, sermon, sanctuary ; and in short nearly all the 
terms pertaining to religious rites, have been adopted by the 
English. A third contribution was made about the beginning 
of the thirteenth century by a very general desire to study 
the Classics, as the Greek and Latin were then called. 
While this prevailed, the Latin was regarded as the only 
proper medium of thought. All learned discussions were 
conducted in it ; all scientific treatises were written in it ; and 
scholarship always implied a familiarity with it. If an author 
would have his productions read, he must write in it, for two 
reasons ; first, those who could read at all knew how to read 
the Latin; second, those who could not read Latin could 
seldom read at all. 

The first check given to this strange practice was produced 
by the benevolent desire to enable every one to read the 
Sacred Scriptures in that language wherein he was born. 
This led to the translation of the Scriptures into the various 
dialects ; and thus, by making each a recorded language, fur- 
nished the means for its improvement and perpetuity. To 



516 GREEK CONTRIBUTIONS. 

this cause, as has been stated already, we are indebted for 
the preservation and improvement of our own Enghsh ; and 
to this also are more nations indebted for the blessino- of a 
recorded language than to all other causes combined. 

The Greek has contributed directly from itself a great 
number of scientific terms ; so large, indeed, that the shortest 
Avay in which to master the terms of any modern science is 
to begin with the study of the Greek itself. 

First. The Names of the Sciences ; These are usually formed by the 
Greek word naming the department, or kind, followed by — ologyy signi- 
fying science or reason ; or by — ograjohy, drawing, description ; or by 
— ometry, measure ; or by — onomy, law ; &c. ; as, Geology, from Ge, 
the earth, and ology ; Geography, from Ge, and ography ; Geometry, 
Ge, and ometry ; Astronomy, from Aster, a star, and onomy. 

Second. Names of Classes ; as, monosyllable, polysyllable, &c., en- 
dogens, growing within ; exogens, growing without. 

Third. Names of Species and Individuals. Acid, saccharine, oxygen. 

Neither the Saxons nor the Normans had made any con- 
siderable progress in classified science at the time of their 
uniting to form the English ; consequently neither furnished 
those terms, which subsequent scientific progress demanded, 
and which were already coined in the Greek. As was most 
natural, these were transferred from the Greek to the English 
and the idea, thus suggested, was carried into practice still 
farther, until vv^e now have a most complete system of scien- 
tific names whose nominal and real definitions being the same 
are very easily learned and retained. True, it is both easy 
and usual for ignorance to decry their use ; but it is equally 
true, that it is easier to learn them, than, from the two great 
elements of the English, to furnish substitutes, which will 
not confound us by the number of different meanings, which 
each term must take. Now, the term itself advises us of its 
use ; as in the following examples, in which the words in 
small-capitals are Greek ; those in italics, Latin, and the rest 
are Saxon. 

1. Philosophy is a systematic arrangement of facts. 

2. Optics is the science of seeing and of light. 

3. Light always moves in straight lines. 



SAXON VERSUS GREEK. 517 

One important advantage, which is gained by drawing our 
scientific names from the Greek, is the fact, that by so doing, 
we have the same terms, which other nations use and thus 
are enabled to understand with ease and definiteness all de- 
scriptions of new objects, discoveries, processes, &c. 

We can not leave this subject without alluding to the 
practice of public speakers, who, with few exceptions, persist 
in using words of Greek origin instead of the simpler Saxon. 
By this practice they do, indeed, gain a more pleasing variety 
of sounds, but with a certainty of being less properly under- 
stood, if understood at all. The Saxon has less of what is 
pleasing in sound than the words derived directly from the 
Greek and Latin ; its chief excellence is in its simplicity and 
brevity ; hence, it becomes interesting only in proportion as 
it becomes the medium of thought ; and whoever, in an ap- 
peal to the feelings, sacrifices the plain, outspoken Saxon 
even for the more refined and "polished Norman, sacrifices 
sense to sound. We once heard a young speaker, who had 
imbibed this false estimate of the two classes of words, para- 
phrase the following beautiful and strong passage, " Hitherto 
shalt thou come, but no farther ; and here shall thy proud 
waves be stayed ;" thus, " Hitherto shalt thou come, but no 
farther ; and here shall thy tumultuous waves be restrained^ 
Comment on the paraphrase is unnecessary. 

It may seem to be more polite to say, ^' It is surely a mis- 
statement of facts," than to say of the same, " It is a false- 
hood ;" yet the latter is the plainer truth. We shall farther 
discuss the difference of the two kinds of words m connec« 
tion with Style. 

Thus, have we traced the origin and growth of the Eng- 
lish language from its sources to the time, when it was 
adopted as the national language of Britain in 1362. It may 
be considered as having secured its adoption, when Wick- 
lifFe's translation of the Bible made its appearance in 1383, 
and to have commenced its career toward its own perfection 
and universal adoption when, in 1474, William Caxton in- 
troduced the first Printing Press into England. With these 



518 ROOT — PREFIX — SUFFIX. 

events the History of the Origin of the English Language 
closes. That of its subsequent improvements and achieve- 
ments remains to be told in its proper place, while we return 
to Derivative Words ; for the proper understanding of which, 
the history of the origin of this language has just been given. 



Suggestion. In the Examination of the Extracts for Exercise, it will 
re well to observe the following order ; — 

1 . Taken in periods. Give the Logical, Rhetorical, and Grammati- 
cal Analyses. 

2. Taken as a whole. Is it plain or figurative language ? what figures 
are used ? 

3. Is it pleasing, or displeasing ; and why is it so ? 

4. Examine its idioms and style. (See p. 331.) 
f). Are the words and sentences perspicuous ? 

6. Is it plain, or poetic in sentiment '? Prose or verse? What kind? 

7. Is it epistolary, historical, philosophical, fictitious, dramatic, or 
oratorical ? What kind of — -"I 

8. How should it be read ? What is the key, movement, &c. ? 

Students should be encouraged to express their opinions freely, and 
should be required to give reasons for the opinions expressed. By this 
means, attention may be drawn to the composition of others, and the 
foundation laid for forming a correct taste and a good style. 



EXTRACTS FOR EXERCISE. 



Historic. — Natural Key, Plain Style, (p. 461.) 
1. Genius and Labor. — iV! J] Ledger. 

Alexander Hamilton once said to an intimate friend — ** Men 
give me some credit for genius. All the genius that I have lies 
just in this. When I have a subject in hand T study it profound- 
ly. Day and night it is before me. I explore it in all its bear- 
ings. My mind becomes pervaded with it. Then the effort 
which I make is what people are pleased to call the fruit of 
,^enius. It is the fruit of labor and of thought." 

Mr. Webster once replied to a gentleman, who pressed him to 
speak on a subject of great importance ; ** The subject interests 
me deeply, but I have not time. There, sir," pointing to a huge 
pile of letters on his table, *' is a pile of unanswered letters, to 
which I must reply before the close of the session [which was 
then three days off]. I have not time to master the subject so 
as to do it justice." — '' But, Mr. Webster, a few words from you 
would do much to awaken public attention to it." — *' If there be 
such weight in my words as you represent, it is because I do not 
allow myself to speak on any subject until I have imbued my 
mind with it,'''' 

Demosthenes was once urged to speak on a great and sudden 
emergency. ** I am not prepared," said he, and obstinately re- 
vised. 

Hundreds have attempted the definition of genius. When 
Sir Isaac Newton was asked for it, he replied, '^Patience and 
work." The answer was eminently characteristic, and whether 
correct or not, it is pregnant with meaning, and affords large 
food for thought. Sir Isaac would spend whole months in the 
examination of a single numerical relation, or the bearings of an 
angle of incidence, and if he was not then perfectly satisfied, 
other months were consumed in the same studies. Then, when 
he had grasped fact after fact in an iron hand, and on them built 
up his sublime theory of the physical universe, it is no wonder 
that, with a humility of intellect, which, alike v/ith his power 
of discovery, was the wonder of his age, he attributed the mas- 
sive laurels encircliiig his broad forehead, to ** Patience." 



520 MY mother's grave. 

Emotional. — Beginning in the historic, this extract runs throag'i th6 
key of the emotions into the key of the passions. 

2. My Mother's Graye. — W, Irving. 

I SOUGHT the village church. It is an old, low edifice, of gray- 
stone, on the brow of a small hill, looking over fertile fields to- 
wards where the proud towers of Warwick Castle lift them- 
selves against the distant horizon. 

A part of the churchyard is shaded hy large trees. Under one 
of them my mother lay buried. You have no doubt thought me 
a light, heartless being. I thought myself so ; but there are mo- 
ments of adversity, which let us into some feelings of our nature 
to which we might otherwise remain perpetual strangers. 

I sought my mother's grave ; the weeds were already matted 
over it, and the tombstone was half hid among nettles. I cleared 
them away, and they stung my hands ; but I was heedless of the 
pain, for my heart ached too severely. I sat down on the grave, 
and read over and over again the epitaph on the stone. 

It was simple, — but it was true. I had written it myself. I 
had tried to write a poetical epitaph, but in vain; my feelings 
refused to u'ter themselves in rhyme. My heart had been 
gradually filling during my lonely wanderings ; it was now 
charged to the brim, and overflowed. I sunk upon the ^rave, 
and buried my face in the tnll grass, and wept like a child. Yes, 
I wept in manhood upon the grave, as I had in infancy upon the 
bosom of my mother. 

Alas ! how little do we appreciate a mother's tenderness while 
she is living I How heedless are we in youth of all her anxieties 
and kindness ! But when she is dead and gone ; when the cares 
and coldness of the world come withering to our hearts; when 
we learn how hard it is to find true sympathy, how few love Uh 
for ourselves, how few will befriend us in our misfortunes — 
then it is that we think of the mother we have lost. 

It is true I had always loved my mother, even in my most 
heedless days ; but I felt how inconsiderate and ineflfectual had 
been my love. My heart melted as I retraced the days of in- 
fancy, when I was led by a mother's hand, and rocked to sleep 
in a mother's arms, and was without care and sorrow. " my 
mother !" exclaimed I, burying my face again in the grass of the 
grave, *' that I were once more by your side, sleeping never 
to wake again on the cares and troubles of this world !" 



IRVING. 521 

I am not naturally of a morbid temperament, and the violence 
of my emotion gradually exhausted itself It was a hearty^ 
honest, natural discharge of grief, which had been slowly accumu- 
lating, and the discharge gave me wonderful relief I rose fronn 
the grave as if I had been offering up a sacrifice, and I felt as it 
that sacrifice had been accepted. 

I sat down again on the grass, and plucked, one by one, thj 
weeds from her grave ; the tears trickled more slowly down mj 
cheeks, and ceased to be bitter. It was a comfort to think tha 
she had died before sorrow and poverty came upon her child, 
and before all his great expectations Avere blasted. 

I leaned my cheek upon my hand, and looked upon the land 
scape. Its quiet beauty soothed me. The whistle of a peasant 
from an adjoining field came cheerily to my ear. I seemed to 
respire hope and comfort with the free air, that Avhispered through 
the leaves, and played lightly with my hair, and dried the tears 
upon my cheek. 

A lark, rising from the field before me, and leaving, as it were, 
a stream of song behind him as he rose, lifted my fancy with 
him. He hovered in the air just above the place where the 
towers of Warwick Castle marked the horizon, and seemed as 
if fluttering with delight at his own melody. " Surely," thought 
I, ''if there was such a thing as transmigration of souls, this 
might be taken for some poet let loose from earth, but still revel- 
ling in song, and carolling about fair fields and lordly towers." 

At this moment, the long-forgotten feeling of poetry rose with- 
in me. A thought sprung at once into my mind. '' I will be- 
come an author !" said I. *'I have hitherto indulged in poetry 
as a pleasure, and it has brought me nothing but pain ; let me try 
what it will do when I cultivate it with devotion as a pursuits" 

The resolution thus suddenly roused within me heaved a load 
from my heart. I felt a confidence in it, from the very place 
where it was formed. It seemed as though my mother's spirit 
whispered it to me from the grave. " I will henceforth," said I, 
*' endeavor to act as if she were witness of my actions ; I will 
endeavor to acquit myself in such a manner, that, when I revisit 
iier grave, there may at least be no compunctious bitterness in 
my tears." 



522 CATALINE — CROLY. 

Passionate. — Intensified Grave Key. Neat style. 
3. Scene in the Roman Senate. — Oroly. 

Cicero. Fathers of Rome ! If man can be convinced 
By proof, as clear as daylight, here it is ! 
Look on these letters ! Here is a deep-laid plot 
To wreck the provinces ; a solemn league, 
Made with all form and circumstance. The time 
Is desperate ; all the slaves are up ; Rome shakes ! 
The heavens alone can tell how near our graves 
We stand, ev'n here ! The name of Cataline 
Is foremost in their league. He was their king. 
Tried and convicted traitor ! Go from Rome ! 

Cataline. [Haughtily rising.'] Come, consecrated lictors, 
from your thrones ; [To the Senate. 

Fling down your sceptres ; take the rod and axe, 
And make the murder as 3"ou make the law — 
Cicero. [Interrupting.'] Give up the record of his banishment. 
[The Officer gives it to the Consul in the chatr.'j 

Cataline. [Indignantly.] Banished from Rome ! What's 
banished, but set free 
From daily contact of the things I loathe ? 
** Tried and convicted traitor !" Who says this? 
Who '11 prove it, at his peril, on my head ? 
Banished ! I thank you for it. It breaks my chain ! 
I held some slack allegiance till this hour. 
But now my sword 's my own. Smile on, my lords ! 
I scorn to count what feelings, withered hopes, 
Strong provocations, bitter, burning wrongs, 
I have within my heart's hot cells shut up. 
To leave you in your lazy dignities. 
But here I stand and scoff you ; here, 1 flmg 
Hatred and full defiance in your face. 
Your Consul 's merciful. For this, all thanks. 
He dares not touch a hair of Cataline ! 

[The Consul rent 6?5.1 "Lucius Sergius Cataline; by the de- 
cree of the Senate, you are declared an enemy and alien to the 
state, and banished from the territory of the Commonwealth." 

The Consul. Lictors, drive the traitor from the temple! 

Cataline. [Furious.] "Tr;iitor!" 1 go, hnil return. This 
—trial ! 



TROUBLES — BEECHER. 523 

Here I devote j^our Senate ! I 've had wrongs 

To stir a fever in the blood of age, 

Or make the infant's sinews strong as steel. 

This day 's the birth of sorrows ! this hour's work 

Will breed proscriptions. Look to your hearths, my lords ! 

For there, henceforth shall sit, for household gods. 

Shapes hot from Tartarus ! all shames and crimes ! 

Wan Treachery, with his thirsty dagger drawn ; 

Suspicion, poisoning his brother's cup ; 

Naked Rebellion, with the torch and axe. 

Making his wild sport of your blazing thrones; 

Till Anarchy comes down on you like Night, 

And Massacre seals Rome^s eternal grave ! 

[The Senators rise in tumult and cry out y 
Go, enemy and parricide, from Rome — 

Cicero. Expel him, lictors ! Clear the Senate House ! 

[They surround him, 

Cataline. [Struggling through them.'] I go, but not to leap 
the gulf alone. 
I go ; but when I come, Hwill he the hurst 
Of ocean in the earthquake ; rolling back 
In swift and mountainous ruin. Fare you well ! 
You build my funeral-pile, but your best blood 
Shall quench its flame. Back, slaves ! I will return ! 



Historic. — Somewhat approaching the Gay Key. 

4. Troubles. — By H. W. Beecher. 

We should brave troubles, as the New England schoolboy 
braves winter. The school is a mile away over the hill, yet he 
lingers not by the fire, but with his books slung over his shoulders, 
and his cap tied closely under his chin, he sets forth to face the 
storm. And M^hen he reaches the topmost ridge, where the 
powdered snow lies in drifts, and the north wind comes keen 
and biting, does he shrink and cower down beneath the fences, 
or run into the nearest house to warm himself? No ; he buttons 
up his coat and rejoices to defy the blast, and tosses the snow 
wreathes with his foot, and so, erect and fearless, with strong 
heart and ruddy cheek, he goes on to his place at school. Now, 
when the fierce winds of adversity blow over you, and your life's 



524 JACKET JSSSAMY. 

summer lies buried beneath frost and snow, do not linger in- 
active, or sink cowardly down by the way, or turn aside from 
your course for momentary warmth and shelter, but with stout 
heart and firm step, go forward in God's strength to vanquish 
trouble and to bid defiance to disaster. If there is ever a time 
to be ambitious, it is not when ambition is easy, but when it is 
hard. Fight in darkness ; fight when you are down ; die hard, 
and you will not die at all. That gelatinous man, whose bones 
are pulp — that man is a coward. 



Historic. — Nearly up to the Gay K^. 
5. Jacket Jessamy. — Anonymoits. 

If I were little Jackey Jessamy, ten years old last Candle- 
mas, with a flaxen poll, rosy cheeks, and a frilled shirtneck; and 
if, having mastered pot-hooks and strokes, I had made my way 
into joined-hand, — with this pen, from this ink, on this paper, 
I should be inditing, "Fortune favors the brave;" ** Custom is 
second nature ;" '' Be wise betimes, shun darling crimes,'' — with 
other saws and maxims equally elegant and edifying, — "vvhich 
no time, no space, no circumstance could ever blot out from the 
tablet of memory, though for the time present, so far from im- 
proving either my morals or my handwriting by the exercise, I 
might be playing truant in my head, and whipping a top or 
striking a ball with all my heart. 

But if I were Jackey's mamma, and through means of this 
apparatus were corresponding with his schoolmaster on the best 
method of spoiling the dear boy, there is no doubt that, with due 
maternal tenderness, I would expatiate upon his naturally quick 
parts, and give special warning that these should not be blunted 
by too much study ; for reading wears the eyes, writing soils the 
fingers, and arithmetic wrinkles the forehead ; but I would rec- 
ommend the utmost care of his person, the free indulgence of 
his gingerbread appetite, and the most conscientious neglect of 
his morals. 

Ah, then, a hundred to one but this very letter would be the 
death-warrant to the poor lad's best interests ; and this, being 
duly executed by an obsequious teacher, would send the boy from 
school with as little head as the fondest parent could desire to 
see on his heir apparent^s shoulders, and well fitted to maintain 
the family imbecility, and transmit it unimpaired to posterity. 



GAY KEY IN CHORUS. 525 

6. Sprites at the Windmill. — Anonymous. 

Ha ! ha ! here we are, and the moon has not set, 
And the mossy old windmill is standing here yet. 

The harvest is gathered, the summer has gone, 

And again we rejoice in the scent of the corn. 

Up all, to the wings now ! bloAv high or blow low. 

Round on the old windmill once more we will go ; 

And while the bright moon, which now lends us her beams. 

Is looking alone on the rocks and the streams, 

And gently the dews of the midnight distil, 

We will have one more ride on the wings of the mill. 

Stretch out, then, stretch out to the end of each wing. 
And send them all round with a good hearty swing; 
Up and down — up and down — send them merrily round, 
Eear them down on that side from the sky to the ground. 
Now up ! send them up ! on this side let them fly, 
With a bound from the ground till they point to the sky. 
Now they crack ! never mind, they are used to the strain ; 
Up with them once more — now down with them again! 

We love the clear breeze o'er the pine-covered hill. 

As It sings through the wings of the sturdy old mill ; 

There it comes ! now spring out to the end of each rail, 

And let each arm bend like a mast in a gale ; 

Round with them, round with them^ the wind is too slow 

Bear down altogether, halloo ! there, halloo ! 

Fill the hoppers below, heap them up till they choke. 

And then let the old stones fly round till they smoke ; 

Round, round, send them round with a merry good will, 

Ha ! ha ! we are back to the rattling old mill. 

And Ephraim, the miller, the drowsy old head, 

Who lies now at midnight asleep in his bed, 

Should he wake, would suppose, 

That because the wind blows. 
And for no other reason, around the mill goes. 
When at sunrise he comes, and our work he has found. 
How little he '11 know how his grist has been ground ; 
Then round, send it round, for our work must be done 
Ere old Father Ephraim appears with the sun. 



526 SPRITES AT THE MILL — IT SNOWS. 

Ha ! ha ! a fresh breeze now comes over the hill, 
Each sail feels its breath ; now they stiffen and fill! 
Now, now all is straining above and below, 
And round the quick circle we merrily go ; 
Round, round, and now hark to the musical tones 
That come quivering out from the whirling old stones. 

Halloo there ! rouse all ! ere the night watch is past, 
One more merry round let us have, and the last. 
To the ends of each arm ; and now pour in the com, 
The daylignt is coming, and we must be gone. 
Round with them ! ha ! ha ! how like willows they spring, 
And the sails go down skimming, like birds on the wing ! 
Rise all with them cheerily, then down let them come, 
And now hear the stones how they rumble and hum 

As they rapidly swing 

In its fire-circled ring, 
Each seems like a glad living creature to sing ! 
Hark, hark, to their song, how it gushes and swells, 
With sounds like the low, distant humming of bells ! 
Once more, all together, now up from below ! 
There 's light in the east, we must go, we mnst go I 

Up ! through the blue ether ! up, up, and away ! 

And now the old mill 

May go on if it will, 
Or fold up its wings for a while and be still. 



7. It Snows. — Jfr5. aS'. J. Bale. 

"It snows!" cries the School-boy, *' Hurrah !" and his shorn 

Is ringing through parlor and hall. 
While swift as the wing of a swallow, he 's out. 

And his playmates have answered his call ; 
It makes the heart leap but to witness their joy ; 

Proud wealth has no treasure, I trow, 
Like the rapture that throbs in the pulse of the bov, 

As he gathers his treasures of snow ; 
Then lay not the trappings of gold on thine heirs^ 
While healthj and the riches of nature, are theirs. 



IT SNOWS. 527 

*^ It snows !" sighs the Imbecile, " Ah !" and his breath 

Comes heavy, as clogged with a weight ; 
While, from the aspect of nature in death, 

He turns to the blaze of his grate : 
And nearer and nearer, his soft, cushioned chair 

Is wheeled toward the life-giving flame ; 
He dreads a chill puff of the snow-burdened air. 

Lest it wither his delicate frame ; 
! small is the pleasure existence can give, 
When the fear we shall die only proves that we live ! 

"It snows!" cries the Traveller, *'Ho!" and the word 

Has quickened his steed's lagging pace ;' 
The wind rushes by, but its howl is unheard, 

Unfelt the sharp drift in his face ; 
For bright through the tempest his own home appeared, 

Aye, through leagues intervened he can see ; 
There 's the clear, glowing hearth, and the table prepared, 

And his wife with her babes at her knee ; 
Blest thought ! how it lightens the grief-laden hour, 
That those we love dearest are safe from its power ! 

"It snows !" cries the Belle, " Dear, how lucky !" and turns 

From her mirror to watch the flakes fall ; 
Like the flrst rose of summer, her dimpled cheek burns, 

While musing on sleigh-ride and ball ; 
There are visions of conquests, of splendor, and mirth. 

Floating over each drear winter's day ; 
But the tintings of hope, on this storm-beaten earth. 

Will melt like the snow-flakes away ; 
Turn, turn thee to Heaven, fair maiden, for bliss; 
That world has a pure fount ne'er opened in this. 

" It snows !" cries the Widow, " God !" — and her sighs 

Have stifled the voice of her prayer; 
its burden ye '11 read, in her tear-swollen eyes, 

On her cheek sunk with fasting and care. 
'Tis night, and her fatherless ask her for bread, 

But " He gives the young ravens their food," 
And she trusts, till her dark hearth adds horror to dread. 

As she lays on her last chip of wood. 
Poor sufi'erer ! that sorrow thy God only knows ; 
'Tis a most bitter lot to be poor, when it snows ! 



528 LOOSE, OR FAULTY STYLE. 



8. On Style. — J, K, Paulding, 

Styhy a manner of writing ; title : pin of a dial ; the pistil of plants. 

Johnson. 
Style is style. — Linhum Fidelum. 

Now I would not give a straw for either of the above defini- 
tions, though I think the latter is by far the most satisfactory ; 
and I do wish sincerely every modern numscuU who takes 
hold of a subject he knows nothing about, would adopt honest 
Linkum's mode of explanation. Blair's Lectures on this article 
have not thrown a whit more light on the subject of my inqui- 
ries ; they puzzled me just as much as did the learned and labori- 
ous expositions and illustrations of the worthy professor of our 
college, in the middle of which I generally had the ill luck to 
fall asleep. 

This same word style, though but a diminutive word, assumes 
to itself more contradictions, and significations, and eccentricities, 
than any monosyllable in the language is legitimately entitled 
to. It is an arrant little humorist of a word, and full of whim- 
whams, which occasions me to like it hugely ; but it puzzled me 
most wickedly on my first return from a long residence abroad, 
having crept into fashionable use during my absence ; and had it 
not been for friend Evergreen, and that thrifty sprig of knowledge, 
Jeremy Cockloft the younger, I should have remained to this day 
Ignorant of its meaning. 

Though it would seem that the people of all countries are 
equally vehement in the pursuit of this phantom, style, yet in 
almost all of them there is a strange diversity in opinion as tc 
what constitutes its essence ; and every difierent class, like the 
pagan nations, adore it under a diflferent form. In England, for 
instance, an honest cit packs up himself, his family, and his style, 
in a buggy or tim whisky, and rattles away on Sunday with his 
fair partner blooming beside him, like an eastern bride, and two 
chubby children squatting like Chinese images at his feet. A 
baronet requires a chariot and pair ; an earl must have abarouche- 
and-four ; but a duke — oh! a duke can not possibly lumber his 
style along under a coach-and-six, and half a score of footmen 
into the bargain. In China, a puissant mandarin loads at least 
three elephants with style ; and an overgrown sheep at the Cape 
of Good Hope trails along his tail and his style on a wheelbarrow. 
In Egypt, or at Constantinople, style consists in the quantity of 



THANKSGIVING. 529 

fur and fine clothes a lady can put on without danger of suffoca- 
tion ; here it is otherwise, and consists in the quantity she can 
put off without the risk of freezing. A Chinese lady is thought 
prodigal of her charms, if she exposes the tip of her nose, or the 
ends of her fingers to the ardent gaze of bystanders ; and T recol- 
lect that all Canton was in a buzz in consequence of the great 
belle, Miss Nangfous, peeping out of the window with her face 
uncovered ! Here the style is to show not only the face, but the 
neck, shoulders, etc. ; and a lady never presumes to hide them 
except when she is not at home, or not sufficiently undressed to 
see company. 

This style has ruined the peace and harmony of many a worthy 
household ; for no sooner do they set up for style, but instantly 
all the honest old comfortable sans ceremome furniture is dis- 
carded ; and you stalk cautiously about among the uncomfortable 
splendor of Grecian chairs, Egyptian tables, Turkey carpets, and 
Etruscan vases. This vast improvement in furniture demands 
an increase in the domestic establishment ; and a family that re- 
quired two or three servants for convenience, now employ half a 
dozen for stvle. 



9. Thanksgiving. — J, T. Buchingham. 

An anonymous modern writer has beautifully said, " There 
are moments in existence which comprise the power of years ; 
as thousands of roses are contained in a few drops of their essence." 
The remark is no more beautiful than just. I once witnessed an 
incident, which made me feel its truth, though long before the sen- 
timent itself was written. In one of the largest villages in the 
eastern part of Connecticut, a woman was left a widow with ten 
children, all hvt one of whom were under twenty years of age. 
The family hsid once enjoyed a competence, and looked forward 
to years of eise and plenty. Toward the close of the revolu- 
tionary war, the father, thinking to make a profitable specula- 
lion, disnospd of a large and profitable stock in trade, and received 
in payment what, at the time was called cash, but which turned 
out shortly after to be worthless paper ; bills of the old ** Con- 
tinental currency." These bills were laid up in his desk, and 
soon began to depreciate in value. The deterioration went on 
*Vom dav to dav, and in a few months the bubble burst : and the 
23 



530 THANKSGIVING — NEAT STYLE. 

lund, which had been hoarded to educate a family, would not 
buy them a breakfast. At this moment the father died. 

I will not trace the history of this family through its days of 
destitution and poverty. It is sufficient to state that the children 
were scattered in various directions, and engaged in various em- 
ployments, till at length all were gone and the mother left alone, 
dependent on friends for a bedroom, and on the labor of her hands 
for her own subsistence : a precarious dependence, for to other 
misfortunes had succeeded the loss of health. In process of time, 
one of the sons, having completed his apprenticeship, hired a 
house for his mother, and lived with her, while he followed the 
occupation of a shoemaker. Thanksgiving day came ; and with 
it, returned an opportunity to indulge in its peculiar rites, which 
they had not enjoyed for ten years. The two younger boys, who 
lived at a distance from each other and from the parent, came 
HOME to keep Thanksgiving. 

The festive preparations were completed. The table was 
spread. Around it stood a mother and three sons, who had not 
been assembled together before within the remembrance of the 
youngest of the group. The grateful and pious mother lifted her 
heart and her voice to the widow's God, and uttered a blessing 
on that kindness which had not broken the bruised reed, and that 
goodness which had remembered all her sorrows, and permitted 
her once more to see so many of her orphan children assembled 
around her. Her expressions of gratitude were not finished, 
when the tide of affection and thanksgiving, which swelled the 
heart, overpowered the physical faculties. Her bosom heaved 
with strong convulsions, her utterance was choked, the lips could 
not relieve by words the emotions which filled the soul ; she 
faltered, and would have fallen, had not the elder son caught 
and sustained her in his arms. Tears, at length, came to her re- 
lief, and the earthquake of the soul was succeeded by those grate- 
ful and affectionate sensations, which can find no parallel but in 
a mother's heart. 

It is more than forty years since this incident took place The 
scene is now as fresh and bright to my. imagination, as it was at 
the moment of its occurrence. Eternity can not obliterate its 
impression from my memory ; for that widow was my mother. 



10. Leave thy fatherless children, I will preserve them alive 
and let thy widows trust in me. 



ORATORICAL. 53x 



11. Bunker Hill. — Kossuth. 

My voice shrinks from the task to mingle with the awful 
pathos of that majestic orator [pointing to the monument]. 
Silent like the grave, and yet melodious like the song of im- 
mortality upon the lips of the cherubim — a senseless cold granite, 
and yet warm with inspiration like a patriot's heart — immovable 
like the past, and yet stirring like the future, which never stops ; 
it looks like a prophet, and speaks like an oracle. And thus it 
speaks : — 

" The day I commemorate is the rod with which the hand of tne Lord 
has opened the well of Liberty. Its waters will flow ; every new drop 
of martyr blood will increase the tide. Despots may dam its flood, but 
never stop it. The higher its dam the higher the tide ; it will overflow 
or will break through. Bow, and adore, and hope.'' 

Such are the words which come to my ears, and I bow, I 
adore, I hope. 

In bowing, my eyes meet the soil of Bunker Hill — that awful 
opening scene of the eventful drama to which Lexington and 
Concord had been the preface. 

The spirit of the past rises before my eyes. I see Richard 
Gridley hastily planning the entrenchments. I hear the blunt 
sound of the pickaxe and spade in the hands of the patriot band. 
I hear the patrols say that *' All is well." I see Knowlton raising 
his line of rail fence, upon which soon the guns will rest, that 
the bullets may prove to their message true. I see the tall com- 
manding form of Prescott marching leisurely around the parapet, 
inflaming the tired patriots with the classical words that those 
who had the merit of the labor should have the honor of the vic- 
tory. I see Asa Pollard fall, the first victim of that immortal 
day ; I see the chaplain praying over him ; and now the roaring 
of cannon from ships and from batteries, and the blaze of the 
burning town, and the thrice renewed storm and the persevering 
defence, till powder was gone and but stones remained ; and ] see 
Warren telling Elbridge Gerry that it is sweet and fair to die for 
the fatherland ; I see him lingering in his retreat, and struck in 
the forehend, fall to the ground ; and Pomeroy, with his shatter- 
ed musket in his brave hand, complaining that he remained un- 
hurt when a Warren had to die ; and I see all the brave who fell 
unnamed, unnoticed, and unknown, the nameless corner-stones 
of American independence. 



532 BUNKER HILL — KOSSUTH. 

All the spirits of that most eventful victory, under the name 
of defeat — I see them all ; the eyes of my soul are familiar with 
the spirits of the martyrs of liberty. But those I see around me 
have no sad, ghostly look ; they bear no gushing wounds crying 
for revenge to the Almighty God ; the smile of eternal bliss is 
playing around their lips, and though dwellers of Heaven, they 
like to visit the place where their blood was spilt ; it was not 
spilt in vain — their fatherland is free ; and there is a joy in that 
thought, adding ever new charm to the happiness of blessed 
souls. As the fabulous divinities of ancient Greece like to rest 
from the charms of Heaven on Mount Olympus, so must the 
spirit of Warren like to rest on the top of this monument. 

Martyrs of my country ! how long will it yet be till a like joy 
will thrill through your departed souls ? when wiJl the smile of 
that joy play around your lips ? how long will yet the gush of 
your wounds cry for revenge — your fatherland still bleeding, 
down-trodden, oppressed? There is a sorrow in that thought, 
casting the gloom of sadness even over the bliss of Paradise. 

Almighty Father of mankind, let the day of thy mercy be not 
too far. 

Excuse my emotion, gentlemen. The associations of my ideas 
are natural. Your Bunker Hill and our Kapolna are twins — 
both called defeats, and both eventful victories — both resulting 
in the declaration of an independence ; but yours acknowledged 
before it was achieved, and supported by foreign aid — ours not 
acknowledged even when achieved, and meeting foreign aggres- 
sion instead of aid. 

Well, past is past, and can not be changed — but the future is 
open yet — and often I have bowed before the recollections of this 
hallowed ground. I adore the Almighty with unfaltering hope. 
Part of my hope rests in the justice of Him who rules the uni- 
verse, and holds in his hands the destinies of mankind and of men. 
My people's sufferings are recorded in the book of His eternal 
decrees, and the tears of my people numbered in his scale. I 
trust to Him. 



12. IzAAK Walton — Died in 1685. 

Sweet rose, whose hue, angry and brave, bids the rash gazer 

wipe his eye, 
Thy root is ever in its grave, and thou must die. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 533 

13. Aunt Kindly. — Theodore Parker. 

Miss Kindly is aunt to every body, and has been so long that 
none remember to the contrary. The little children love her ; 
she helped their grandmothers to bridal ornaments threescore 
years ago. Nay, this boy's grandfather found his way to college 
throuo:h her pocket. Generations not her own rise up and call 
her blessed. To this man's father her patient toil gave the first 
start in life. That great fortune — when it was a seed she car- 
ried it in her hand. That wide river of reputation ran out of the 
cup her bounty filled. Now she is old; very old. The little 
children, who cling about her, with open mouth and great round 
eyes, wonder that anybody should ever be so old; or that Aunt 
Kindly ever had a mother to kiss her mouth. To them she is 
coeval with the sun, and, like that, an institution of the country. 
At Christmas they think she is the wife of Saint Nicholas him- 
self, such an advent of blessings is there from her hand. She has 
helped to lay a blessing in many a poor man's crib. 

Now these things are passed by. No, they are not passed by ; 
they are remembered in the memory of the dear God, and every 
good deed she has done is treasured in her own heart. The 
bulb shuts up the summer in its breast which in winter will come 
out a f^^agrant hyacinth. Stratum after stratum her good works 
are laid up, imperishable in the geology of her character. 

It is near noon. She is alone. She has been thoughtful all 
day, talking inwardly to herself. The family notice it, and say 
nothing. In a chamber, from a private drawer, she takes a 
little casket, and from thence a book, gilt-edged and clasped; 
but the clasp is worn, the gilding is old, the binding is faded by 
long use. Her hands tremble as she opens it. First she reads 
her own name on the fly-leaf; only her Christian name, " Agnes," 
and the date. Sixty-eight years ago this day it was written 
there, in a clear, youthful, clerkly hand — with a little tremble 
in it, as if the heart beat over it quick. It is a very well worn, 
dear old Bible. It opens of its own accord at the fourteenth 
chapter of John. There is a little folded piece of paper there ; it 
touches the first verse and the twenty-seventh. She sees neither ; 
she reads both out of her soul ; *' Let not your heart be troubled ; 
ye believe in God ; believe also in me." " Peace I leave with 
you. My peace give I unto you. Not as the world giveth give 
I unto you." She opens the paper. There is a little brown dust 
in it; perhaps the remnant of a flower. She takes the precious 



534 NARRATIVE. 

relic ir her hand, made cold by emotion. She drops a tear on 
it, and the dust is transfigured before her eyes ; it is a red rose of 
the spring, not quite half blown, dewy fresh. She is old no 
longer. It is not Aunt Kindly nov/ ; it is sweet Agnes, as the 
maiden of eighteen was eight-and-sixty years ago, one day in 
May, when all nature was woosome and winning, and every 
flower-bell rung in the marriage of the year. Her lover had just 
put that red rose of the spring into her hand, and the good God 
another in her cheek, not quite half-blown, dewy fresh. The 
young man's arm is round her ; her brown curls fall on his 
shoulder ; she feels his breath on her face, his cheek on hers ; 
their lips join, and, like two morning dew-drops in that rose, 
their two loves rush into one. But the youth must wander to a 
far land. They will think of each other as they look at the 
North Star. She bids him take her Bible. He saw the North 
Star hang over the turrets of many a foreign town. His soul 
went to God — there is as straight a road from India as from any 
other spot — and his Bible came back to her — the divine love in 
it, without the human lover; the leaf turned down at the blessed 
words of John, first and twenty-seventh of the fourteenth chapter. 
She put the rose there to note the spot ; what marks the thought 
holds now the symbol of their youthful love. Now to-day her 
soul is with him, her maiden soul with his angel soul ; and one 
day the two, like two dew-drops, will rush into one immortal 
wedlock, and the old age of earth shall become eternal youth in 
the Kingdom of Heaven. 



14. Signing the Pledge. 

The Rev. John Abbott, the sailor-preacher, relates the follow- 
ing good story of one of his converts to temperance ; — 

Mr. Johnson, at the close of a cold-water lecture, intimated 
that he must sign the pledge in his own way, which he did in 
these words ; 

*' I, AVilliam Johnson, pledge myself to drink no more intoxi- 
cating drinks for one year." 

Some thought he would not stick three days, others allowed 
him a week, and a few others gave him two weeks ; but the 
landlord knew him the best, and said he was good stuff, but at 
the end of the year Bill would be a good soaker. 



SIGNING THE pledgp:. 535 

Before the year was quite gone, Mr. Johnson was asked by 
Mr. Abbott; — 

" William, are not you going to resume the pledge ?" 

** Well, I do not know, sir, but what I will, I have done 
pretty well so far ; will you let me sign it again my own way ?" 

** yes, any way, so that you will not drink rum." 

[He writes.'] *' I, William Johnson, sign this pledge for nine 
hundred and ninety-nine years, and if living at the end of that 
time, I intend to make out a lease for life." 

A day or two after, Johnson went to see his old landlord, who 
eyed him as a hawk does a chicken, 

" 0, landlord !" he whined, accompanied by sundry contor- 
tions of the body, as if enduring the most excruciating torment, 
•" I have such a lump on my side." 

** That's because you have stopped drinking ; you won't live 
two years longer at this rate." 

*'If I commence drinking, will the lump go away?" 

** Yes. If you don't you'll have a lump on the other side." 

"Do you think so, landlord?" 

*^I know it ; you'll have them on your arms, back, breast, and 
head ; you will be covered all over with lumps." 

"Well, may be I will," said William. 

*' Come, Bill," said the landlord, "let's drink together;" at 
the same time pouring the red stuff from the decanter into the 
glass, gug, gug, gug. 

" No," said Johnson, " I can not for I have signed the pledge 
again." 

" You ain't though ! you are a fool !" 

"Yes, that old sailor coaxed so hard I could not get off." 

" I wish that old rascal was in Guinea. Well, how long do 
you go this time?" 

" For nine hundred and ninety-nine years." 

"You w^on't live a year." 

" Well, if I drink, are you sure the lump on my side will go 
away ?" 

"Yes." 

" Well, I guess I will not drink ; here's the lump," continued 
he, holding up something with a hundred dollars in it ; " and 
you say, I'll have more such lumps, and that is what I want. '' 



^^o>6 HAMLET, 

15. Hamlet and Hosatio. — Shakspeare, 

Horatio. HaiJ to your lordship ! 

Hamlet. I am glad to see you well. [Approaches,] 
Horatio ! — or I do forget myself. 

Ho7\ The same, my lord, and your poor servant ever. 

Ham. Sir, my good friend, I ^11 change that name with you. 
And what makes you from Wittenburg, Horatio? 

Hor, A truant disposition, good my lord. 

Ham. I would not hear 3^0 nr enemy say so ; 
Nov shall you do mine ear that violence. 
To make it truster of your own report 
Against yourself. I knoY/ you are no truant ; 
Eut what is your affair in Eisinore ? 
We '11 teach you to drink deep ere you depart. 

Hor. My lord, I came to see your father's funeral. 

Ham. I pray thee do not mock me, fellow- student ; 
I think it was to see my mother's wedding. 

Hor. Indeed ! ray lord, it followed hard upon. 

Ham. Thrift, thrift, Horatio ! the funeral baked mea 
Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables. 
Would I had met my dearest foe in heaven, 
Or e'er I had seen that day, Horatio ! 
My father — methinks I see my father — 

Hor. Where, my lord? 

Ham. In my mind's eye, Horatio. 

Hor. I saw him once, he was a goodly kin^. 

Ham. He was a man, take him for all in all^ 
1 shall not look upon his like again. 

Hor. My lord, I think I saw him yesternight* 

Ham. Saw ! who ? 

Hor. My lord, the king, your father. 
Season your admiration for a while. 
With an intent ear ; till I may deliver, 
[Jpon the witness of these gentlemen, 
This marvel to you. 

Ham. For heaven's love, let me hear. 

Hor. Two nights together had these gentlemen^ 
Marcellus and Bernardo, on the watch. 
In the dread waste and middle of the night, 
Been thus encountered : a figure like your father, 



PRINCE OF DENMARK. 53 

Armed at point, exactly, cap-a-pie, 

Appears before them, and, with solemn march, 

Goes slow and stately by them ; thrice he walks 

By their oppressed and fear-surprised eyes, 

Within his truncheon's length : whilst they (distilled 

Almost to jelly with the act of fear) 

Stand dumb and speak not to him. 

Hain, But where was this? 

Hor. My lord, upon the platform where we watched. 

Ham. Did you not speak to it? 

Hor. My lord, I did ; 
But answer made it none ; yet once methought, 
It lifted up its head, and did address 
Itself to motion, like as it would speak ; 
But, even then, the morning cock crew loud; 
And at the sound it shrunk in baste away, 
And vanished from our sight. 

Ham. 'Tis very strange ! 

Hor, As I do live, my honored lord, 'tis true ; 
And we did think it writ down in our duty, 
To let you know of it. 

Ham. Indeed, indeed, sir, but this troubles me. 
Hold you the watch to-night ? 

Hor. We do, my lord. 

Ham. Armed, say you ? 

Hor, Armed, my lord. 

Ham. From top to toe ? 

Hor. My lord, from head to foot. 

Ham. Then saw you not his face ? 

Hor. yes, my lord ; he wore his beaver up. 

Ham. What, looked he frowningly ? 

Hor. A countenance more in sorrow than in anger 

Ham. Pale, or red ? <* 

Hor. Nay, very pale. 

Ham. And fixed his eyes upon you? 

Hor. Most constantly. 

Ham. I would, I had been there. 

Hor. It would have much amazed you. . 

Ham. Very like, very like ; staid it long? 

Hor. While one with moderate haste might tell a hundred. 

Ham. His beard was grizzled ? No ? — 
23* 



53S IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL. 

Hor. It was, as I have seen it in his life, 
A sable silvered. 

Ham. I '11 watch to-night ; perchance h will walk again, 

Hor. I warrant you, it will. 

Ham. If it assume my noble father's person, 
I'll speak to it, though hell itself should gape, 
And bid me hold my peace. I pray you, sir, 
If yoQ have hitherto concealed this sight, 
Let it be tenable in your silence still ; 
And whatsoever else shall hap to-night, 
Give It an understanding, but no tongue ; 
I will requite your love ; so fare you well. 
Upon the platform, 'twixt eleven and twelve, 
I'll visit you. 

16. The Immortality of the Soul. — Addison, 

It must be so — Plato, thou reasonest well ! 

Else whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire. 

This longing after immortality ? 

Or vv^hence this secret dread and inward horror 

Of failing into naught? Why shrinks the soul 

Back on herself, and startles at destruction ? — 

'Tis the Divinity that stirs within us ; 

'Tis Heaven itself, that points out an hereafter, 

And intimates eternity to man. 

Eternity ! — thou pleasing, dreadful thought ! 

Through what variety of untried being. 

Through what new scenes and changes, must we pass! 

The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me. 

But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it. 

Here will I hold. If there's a Power above us, — 

And that there is, all Nature cries aloud 

Through all her works, — he must delight in virtue , 

And that which he delights in must be happy. 

But wnen ? or where ? This world was made for Caesar. 

I'm weary of conjectures — this must end them. 

[^Laying his hand on his sword.] 
Thus I am doubly arm_ed. My death and life, 
My bane and antidote, are both before me. 
This in a moment brings me to an end ; 



BYRON. 530 



Eut this informs me I shall never die ! 
The soul, secured in her existence, smiles 
At the drawn dagger, and defies its point. 
The stars shall fade away, the sun himself 
Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years ; 
But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth, 
Unhurt amidst the war of elements. 
The wreck of matter, and the crush of worlds! 



17. Byron. — ^. Polloh died in 1827. 

Great man ! the nations gazed, and wondered much, 

And praised ; and many called his evil good. 

Wits wrote in favor of his wickedness ; 

And kings to do him honor took delight. 

Thus full of titles, flattery, honor, fame, 

Beyond desire, beyond ambition full, 

He died. He died of what ? Of wretchedness. 

Drank every cup of joy ; heard every trump 

Of fame ; drank early, deeply drank ; drank draughts 

That common millions might have quenched — then died 

Of thirst, because there was no more to drink. 

His goddess. Nature, wooed, embraced, enjoyed. 

Fell from his arms abhorred ; his passions died — 

Died, all but dreary, solitary Pride ; 

And all his sympathies in being died. 

As some ill-guided bark, well built and tall, 

Which angry tides cast out on desert shore. 

And then, retiring, left it there to rot 

And moulder in the winds and rains of heaven. 

So he, cut from the sympathies of life. 

And cast ashore from pleasure's boisterous surge, 

A wandering, weary, worn, and wretched thing, 

Scorched, and desolate, and blasted soul, 

A gloomy wilderness of dying thought, — 

Repined, and groaned, and withered from the earth. 

His groanings filled the land, his numbers filled ; 

And yet he seemed ashamed to groan — poor man ! — 

Ashamed to aslr, and yet he needed help. 



540 MARMION — MORNING. 

18. Marmion.- — Walter Scott died in 1832. 

When, doffed his casque, he felt free air, 

Around 'gan Marmion wildly stare. 

** Where 's Harry Blount ? Fitz-Eustace^ where ? 

Linger ye here, ye hearts of hare ! 

Eedeem my pennon — charge again ! 

Cry, ' Marniion, to the rescue !' — Vain I 

Last of my race, on battle plain 

That shout shall ne'er be heard again ! 

Yet my last thought is England's. Fly, 

Fitz-Eustace, to Lord Surrey hie. 

Tunstall lies dead upon the field ; 

His life-blood stains the spotless shield ; 

Edmund is down — my life is reft — 

The admiral alone is left. 

Let Stanley charge with spur of fire, 

With Chester charge, and Lancashire,. 

Full upon Scotland's central host, 

Or victory and England's lost. 

Must I bid twice ? Hence, varlets, fly t 

Leave Marmion here alone — to die." 



19. June Morning. — Anonymous. 

I saw the green buds in the garden growing, 
While each, bright gems of dew V\rere tipping; 
I saw the swallow on her swift wing going, 
And ever and anon in the smooth pool dipping , 
The lark, to her nest, soft wool was bringing ; 
The trout from the lake's clear bosom springing ; 
The river its green banks was gently laving; 
And fields of grain, in the light breeze waving ; 
Childhood's joyous face was brightly glowing 
With life and health in the morn beams flowing ; 
The maid and her lover delighted were roaming 
Where the rivulet down the steep ledge was foaming^ 
And the glorious sun the whole scene adorning, 
Gave light and life to the glad June morning. 



POETICAL EXTRACTS. 541 

20. Chaucer — Died in 1400. 
And put al that I had seene in writing, 
Under support of them that lust it to rede. 
little bocke, thou art so unconning, 
How uarst thou put thyself in prees for drede? 
It is wonder that thou wexest not rede ! 
Sith that thou wost ful lite who shall behold 
Thy rude language, ful boistously unfoldo 

21. Lord Surrey — Died in 1547. 
Summer is come, for every spray nov/ springs ; 
The hart hath hung his old head on the pale 
The buck in brake his winter coat he flings 
The fishes flete with new repaired scale ^ =^ * ^ 
And thus I see among these pleasant things 
Each care decays, and yet my sorrow springs. 

22. Spenser — Died in 1599. 
Who is the same which at my window peepes? 
Or whose is that fayre face that shines so bright ? 
Is it not Cinthia, she that never sleepes. 
But walks about high Heaven all the night ? 

23. Shakspeare — Died in 1616. 
When to the sessions of sweet silent thought 
I summon up remembrance of things past, 

I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought. 

And with old woes new wail my dear time's waste. 

24. Ben Jonson — Died in 1657. 
Where dost thou careless lie 

Buried in ease and sloth ? 

Knowledge that sleeps, doth die ; 

And this security, 

It is the common moth 

That eats on wits and arts, and so destroys them both. 

25. Cowley — Died in 1667. 
Happy art thou whom God does bless, 
With the full choice of thine own happiness ; 
And happier yet, because thou'rt blest 
With prudence, how to choose the best. 



542 PARADISE LOST. 

26. John Milton — Died in 1674. 

Now had night measur'd with her shadowy cone 
Half-way up hill this vast sublunar vault ; 
And from their ivory port the cherubim 
Forth issuing at th' accustom'd hour, stood arm'd 
To their night watches in warlike parade, 
When Gabriel to his next in power thus spake ; 

" Uzziel ! half these draw off, and coast the south 
With strictest watch ; these other wheel the north; 
Our circuit meets full west." As flame they part, 
Half wheeling to the shield, half to the spear. 
From these, two strong and subtle spirits he call'd, 
That near him stood, and gave them thus in charge ; 

** Ithuriel, and Zephon ! with wing'd speed 
Search thro' this garden, leave uasearch'd no nook 
But chiefly where those two fair creatures lodge, 
Now laid perhaps asleep, secure of harm. 
This evening from the sun's decline arriv'd, 
Who tells of some infernal spirit, seen 
Hitherward bent, (who could have thought?) escap'd 
The bars of hell ; on errand bad, no doubt ; 
Such, where ye find, seize fast, and hither bring." 

So saying, on he led his radiant files, 
Dazzling the moon ; these to the bower direct, 
In search of whom they sought ; him there they found, 
Squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve ; 
Assaying, by his devilish art, to reach 
The organs of her fancy, and with them forge 
Illusions, as he list, phantoms, and dreams ; 
Or if, inspiring venom, he might taint 
Th' animal spirits, that from pure blood arise, 
Like gentle breaths from rivers pure ; thence raise 
At least distemper'd discontented thoughts ; 
Vain hopes, vain aims, inordinate desires. 
Blown up with high conceits engendering pride. 
Him thus intent Ithuriel with his spear 
Touch'd lightly ; for no falsehood can endure 
Touch of celestial temper, but returns 
Offeree to its oivn likeness; up he starts, 
Discover'd and surpris'd. As when a spark 
Lights on a heap of nitrous powder, laid 



PARADISE LOST. 543 

Fit for the tun, some magazine to store 

Against a rumor'd war, the smutty grain 

With sudden blaze difFus'd, inflames the air ; 

So started up in his own shape the fiend. 

Back stepp'd those two fair angels, half araaz'd, 

So sudden to behold the grisly king ; 

Yet thus, unmov d with fear, accost him soon ; 

*' Which of those rebel spirits, adjudg'd to hell, 
Com'st thou, escap'd thy prison ? and transformed 
Why sat'st thou, like an enemy in wait. 
Here watching at the head of these that sleep ?" 

** Know ye not then," said Satan, fiU'd with scorn, 
** Know ye not me ? ye knew me once no mate 
For you ; there sitting where ye durst not soar ; 
Not to know me argues yourself unknown, 
The lowest of your throng ; or if ye know. 
Why ask ye, and superfluous begin 
Your message, like to end as much in vain V 

To whom thus Zephon, answering scorn with scorn: 
** Think not revolted spirit, thy shape the same, 
Or undiminished brightness, to be known 
As when thou stood'st in heaven, upright and pure, 
That glory then, when thou no more wast good, 
Departed from thee ; and thou resemblest now 
Thy sin, and place of doom, obscure and foul. 
But come ; for thou, be sure, shalt give account 
To him who sent us, whose charge is to keep 
This place inviolable, and these from harm." 

So spake the cherub ; and his grave rebuke. 
Severe in youthful beauty, added grace 
Invincible ; abash'd the Devil stood. 
And felt how aAvful goodness is, and saw 
Virtue in her shape how lovely ; saw, and pin'd 
His loss ; but chiefly to find here observed 
His lustre visibly impaired ; yet seemed 
Undaunted. '^ If I must contend," said he, 
** Best with the best, the sender not the sent, 
Or all at once ; more glory will be won, 
Or less be lost." '' Thy fear," said Zephon bold, 
** Will save us trial what the least can do 
Single against thee wicked, and thence w^eak." 



54A INVOCATION TO DEITY, 

27. God. — Dei-zhavin, 

The following poem is a translation from the Russian. It has been, 
translated into Japanese, by order of the emperor, and is hung up, em- 
broidered with gold, in the temple of Jeddo. It has also been translated 
into the Chinese and Tartar languages, written on a piece of rich silk^ 
and suspended in the imperial palace at Pekin. 

Thou eternal One ! whose presence bright 
All space doth occupy, all motion guide ; 
Unchanged through time's all-devastating flight ; 
Thou only God ! There is no God beside ! 
Being above all beings ! Three-in-One ! 
Whom none can comprehend, and none explore ; 
Who fill'st existence with Thyself alone ; 
Embracing all — supporting — ruling*o'er — 
Being y\^hom we call God — and know no more ^ 

In its sublime research, philosophy 
May measure out the ocean deep — may count 
The sands or the sun's rays — but God ! for Thee 
There is no weight nor measure ; — none can mount 
Up to Thy mysteries. Reason's brightest spark, 
Though kindled by Thy light, in vain would try 
To trace Thy counsels, infinite and dark ; 
And thought is lost ere thought can soar so high — 
E'en like past moments in eternity. 

Thou from primeval nothingness didst call, 
First chaos, then existence ; — Lord ! on Thee 
Eternity had its foundation ; — all 
Sprung forth from Thee ; — of light, joy, harmony. 
Sole origin ; — all life, all beauty, Thine. 
Thy word created all, and doth create ; 
Thy splendor fills all space with rays divine ; 
Thou art, and wert, and shalt be ! Glorious, 
Light-giving, life-sustaining Potentate ! 

Thy chains the unmeasured universe surround ; 
Upheld by Thee, by Thee inspired with breath ! 
Thou the beginning with the end hast bound, 
And beautifully mingled life and death! 
As sparks mount upward from the fiery blaze, 
So suns are born, so worlds spring forth from Thee ; 
And as the spangles in the sunny rays 



INVOCATION TO DEITY. 545 

Shine around the silver snow, the pageantry 
Of heaven's bright army glitters in Thy praise. 

A million torches lighted by Thy hand 
Wander unwearied through the blue abyss ; 
They own Thy power, accomplish Thy command, 
All gay with life, all eloquent with bliss. 
What shall we call them ? Pyres of crystal light — 
A glorious company of golden streams — 
Lamps of celestial ether burning bright — 
Suns lighting systems with their joyful beams? 
But Thou to these art as the noon to night. 

Yes ! as a drop of water in the sea, 
All this magnificence in Thee is lost ; — 
What are ten thousand worlds compared to Thee? 
And what am I then ? Heaven's unnumbered host, 
Though multiplied by myriads, and arrayed 
In all the glory of sublimest thought, 
Is but an atom in the balance weighed 
Against Thy greatness, is a cipher brought 
Against infinity ! What am J then? Naught! 
Naught ! But the efliluence of Thy light divine, 
Pervadmg worlds, hath reached my bosom too ; 
Yes, m my spirit doth Thy spirit shine> 
As shines the sunbeam in a drop of dew. 

Naught ! but I live, and on hope's pinions fly 
Eager toward Thy presence ; for in Thee 
I live, and breathe, and dwell ; aspiring high. 
Even to the throne of Thy divinity. 
I am, God ! and surely Thou must be ! 
Thou art ! directing, guiding all, Thou art ! 
Direct my understanding then to Thee ; 
Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart ; 
Though but an atom midst immensity. 
Still I am something, fashioned by Thy hand ! 
I hold a middle rank, 'twixt heaven and earth. 
On the last verge of mortal being stand, 
Close to the realms where angels have their birth. 
Just on the boundaries of the spirit land ! 
The chain of being is complete in me ; 
In me is matter's last gradation lost, 
And the next step is spirit — Deity ! 



546 INVOCATION TO DEITY. 

I can command the lightning and am dust ! 
A monarch, and a slave ; a worm, a god ! 
Whence came I here, and how ? so marvellously 
Constructed and conceived ? unknown ! this clod 
Lives surely through some higher energy ; 
For from itself alone it could not be ! 

Creator, yes ! Thy wisdom and Thy word 
Created me ! Thou source of life and good ! 
Thou spirit of my spirit, and my Lord ! 
Thy light. Thy love, in the bright plenitude. 
Filled me with an immortal soul, to spring 
Over the abyss of death, and bade it wear 
The garments of eternal day, and wing 
Its heavenly flight beyond the li'ttle sphere, 
Even to its source — to Thee — its author there. 

thoughts ineffable ! visions blest ! 
Though worthless our conception all of Thee, 
Yet shall" thy shadowed image fill our breast, 
And waft its homage to Thy Deity. 
God ! thus alone my lonely thoughts can soar ; 
Thus seek Thy presence — Being wise and good. 
Midst Thy vast works admire, obey, adore ; 
And, when the tongue is eloquent no more. 
The soul shall speak in tears of gratitude. 



CHAPTEE YI. 

Human Growth and Utility. 

1. A Human Being is a human spirit, inhabiting 
a human body. This is done on certain conditions, 
and for certain purposes ; fivst^ that the Spirit may 
gain knowledge through the body ; second^ that the 
Spirit may use this knowledge through the body. 

Note. — The conditions of tenancy are; that the Spirit shall pro- 
vide the Body with breath, food, drink, warmth, light, labor, and rest. 

9. The Spiritual beings or Spirit^ is usually meant 
when we say, J, thou, he, We, you, they, or use the 
name of a person. 

3. The Physical beings or the Body^ is usually men- 
tioned as belonging to the Spirit. 

Thus, we say, my body ; or a part of my body, as, my arm, 
my head, &c. ; because the parts belong to the body, and 
the body is our habitation. When we leave it, the Body dies. 
We do not die. 

4. As Spiritual beings^ we employ ourselvee either 
in gaining knowledge, learning; or in using that, 
which we have already gwiQdi^ practising. That part 
of this knowledge pertaining to things, by which we are 
surrounded, and to our own actions in gaining knowl- 
edge, is called Material or Temporal Knowledge ; that 
part, which pertains to character as good or evil, is 
called Spiritual Knowledge. 

5. We call our Spiritual beings or spirits, when 
engaged with Temporal Knowledge, Intellects or 
Minds; when engaged with the Spiritual, we call 
them Souls or Spirits. 



548 



INTELLECTD'Ai 



;d moral philosophy. 



The same person is called by different names, when con- 
sidered in different relations. A man, in relation to his pa- 
rents, is a Son ; in relation to his wife, is a Husband ; to his 
children, is a Father^ &c. 

" She died, having been, at the same time, the daughter^ 
the wife^ and the mother of a king." 

So the spirit is, at the same time, the mind, the intellect^ 
the soul, I, You, the writer, and the reader. 

©. The science of the Intellect, or Mind, is called 
Intellectual or Mental Philosophy; and that of 
the Soul, or Spirit, is called Moral or Social Phi- 
losophy. 



A Comparison of the Body and the Spirit. 

" And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, 
and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became 
a living soul." 



a. The Body is intended for 
growth or development, and for 
use or employment. 

h. The elements, by which the 
body grows and endures labor, are 
furnished by nutriment. 

c. Those parts of our nutri- 
ment, which furnish growth and 
strength to our bodies, become and 
are real and essential parts of our 
bodies. 

d. In order that our food may 
increase and sustain our bodies, it 
must be digested and directed to 
its proper members by the action 
of our own bodily organs, not by 
another's. 

6. Our bodies are that nutri- 
ment, which we ourselves have 
taken ; except those bodies, with 
which, as the germs of after-devel- 
opment, we were born. 



a. The Spirit is intended for 
growth or development, and for 
use or employment. 

h. The elements, by which the 
spirit grows and endures labor, are 
furnished by knowledge. 

c. Those parts of our knowl-. 
edge, which furnish growth and 
strength to our spirits, become and 
are real and essential parts of our- 
selves. 

d. In order that our knowledge 
may develop and sustain us, it 
must be digested and directed to 
its proper offices by the action 
of our own spirits, not by an- 
other's. 

e. TVe are that knowledge, 
which we ourselves have learned ; 
except that undying principle, with 
which, as the germ of after-devel- 
opment, we were created. 



CONSCIOUS AND ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE. 549 

7. The Knowledge, which we possess as a germ of 
after-development, is called Conscious Knowledge. It 
includes what we know of beings or existences without 
study, or without thinking or reflecting upon it. It is 

" The soul, that rises with us, our life's star." 

8. Conscious Knowledge has several items or parts- 
FiRST. The knowledge of Ou7' Oion Existence. 
Second. The knowledge of the Existence of all 

around us. 

Third. Of the Existence of our Bodily Feelings; 
as hunger, thirst, &c. 

Fourth. Of the Existence of our Mental Opera- 
tions^ Emotions^ and Passions; as thinking and choos- 
ing, of pleasure and pain, of the grand, the terrible, 
the ludicrous, &c. 

Fifth. Of the Existence of our Moral and Social 
Affections and Emotions ; as of love to our Creator and 
to our fellow-men, fear, hatred, humility, anger, re- 
venge, &c. 

Sixth. Of the Existence of our Religious Experi- 
ences ; as remorse, repentance, faith, hope, peace, &c. 

Conscious Knowledge is simply this ; We know as a Fact 
that we and the objects around us do exist. It has nothing 
to do with how, or why, we or they do exist. I know that a 
tree exists as a fact, because I perceive it. The certainty 
of my knowledge of its existence does not depend in the least 
upon my knowing how, or ivhy, the tree exists. 

9. The Knoivledge^whioh we afterward acquire, or 
gain in addition to our Conscious Knowledge, is called 
Acquired Knowledge. 

Our knowledge of the earth's existence is Conscious 
Knowledge ; what we have learned of the earth more than 
its existence is Acquired Knowledge, Both constitute our 
hnoudedge of Geography and Geology, 



550 ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE — ITS ORIGIN. 

In acquiring knowledge, we often use the terms understand 
and hnow^ as if both had but one meaning. The difference 
between them is this. When another explains or exhibits 
anything to us, or when we first examine it for ourselves, and 
see the fitness and propriety of its parts or principles, we un- 
derstand it. In order to know it, we must exercise ourselves 
in examining and thinking, until we can reproduce it for our- 
selves or present it properly to others. This is the proof of 
knowing. 

Understanding is the preparatory step to knowing. We 
can understand without knowing, we can not know without 
understanding, " They are all plain to him, that under- 
standeth^ and right to them that find knowledgeJ^ (Proverbs 
viii. 9.) 

10. Our Acquired knowledge may be considered or 
classified in Two ways ; Firsts according to its origin 
or source^ and Second^ according to the mode of ar- 
ranging or using it. 

We can illustrate this classification by a person's property, 
which, in its acquisition, may be the result of his own individ- 
ual efforts, or be inherited from the acquisitions made by 
others ; while it may be used either as active bu^^iness capital, 
or be lying passively on interest. 



FiEST Classification op Knowledge. 

1. According to its origin or source^ Acquired 
Knowledge is Primary or Personal^ and Secondary or 
Derivative, 

2, Primary or Personal Knowledge is that which 
is first learned ; or that which we gain or learn by 
ourselves. Its basis is our Conscious Knowledge. 

Thus, our Knowledge of the pain, caused by a burn, a 
blow, or a wound, is a Primary or Personal Knowledge of 



PRIMARY EXTERNAL KNOWLEDGE. 551 

that pain. So is that Knowledge, which is gained bj seeing, 
as in travelhng ; by hearing, as in music ; or by mental work, 
as in the invention of new machines. 

3. Our Primary or Personal Knoivledge is of tico 
kinds ; a Knowledge of External Things or External 
Knoidedge^ and a Knowledge of Internal Things or 
Internal Knowledge, 

By a knowledge of external things^ we mean not only a 
knowledge of those objects, by which we are surrounded, 
but also concerning our own bodies. Ourselves, as here used, 
means the immortal part, as distinguished from the mortal or 
dying part. 



External Knowledge. 

1. Our Knowledge of External Things or Exter- 
nal Knowledge is learned by the aid of the Senses^ 
and hence, it is sometimes called Sensuous Knoivledge, 

2. Those Mental operations or actions^ by which 
we learn the properties of external things, are called 
the Senses. 

There has been much discussion, as to whether the Senses are dif- 
ferent and distinct parts of the mind, or the mind itself acting in differ- 
ent capacities. Either view will answer our present purpose. 

3. It is generally supposed, that we learn six dif- 
ferent properties of external things, and hence, we 
speak of Six Senses, through each of which we learn 
some one of these properties. 

First. By the Sense of Sight, we discover light or 
color. 

Second. By the Sense of Hearing, we discover 
sounds. 



552 SENSES — ORGAN OF THE SENSE OP SIGHT. 

Third. By the Sense of Smell, we discover odors. 

Fourth. By the Sense of Taste, we ^i^Q.o\Qv flavors. 

Fifth. By the Sense of Feeling or Touch, we dis- 
cover tejjiperature^ surface^ forms. 

Sixth. By the Muscular Sense, we discover weight 
and force. 

Some name only Five Senses, omitting the Muscular Sense, but Six 
are more generally recognised. Professor Winslow names Nine. See 
^'Senses" in ''Lambert's Physiology/' 

Jr. Each Sense has its peculiar Bodily Organ., 
through which it acts, and through which it must be 
developed, if developed at all. The impressions^ 
which each Sense receives through its Organ^ are 
called Sensations. 

5. The Organ of the Sense of Sight is the Eye. 
The Sensation is called Seeing. 

For the development of this Sense, we have all the visible 
objects of Nature ; also Drawing, Reading, Writing, Paint- 
ing, Furniture, Dress, Sculpture, Architecture, &c. 

6. The Science and Art of Seeing are called Optics. 
In Optics we learn the following facts ; — 

First. That White Kght, or such as comes from the Sun, 
is of three kinds. Red, Yellow, and Blue. 

Second. That light always moves in straight lines. 

Third. That when light falls on surfaces, it is either Re- 
flected or Absorbed, or in part Reflected and in part Ab- 
sorbed. 

If all the light he reflected, the surface is called White, 

If all be absorbed, the surface is called Black. 

If a part be reflected and a part absorbed, the surface is 
said to have the reflected color. 

Thus, if the red be reflected, the yellow and blue being 
absorbed, the surface is called Red. 

If the yellow be reflected, the blue and red being absorbed, 
tlie surface is Yellow. 



ORGAN OF THE SENSE OP HEARING. 5od 

If the red and yellow be reflected, the blue being absorbed, 
the surface is Orange, a color formed by compounding red 
and yellow. 

7. The Organ of the Sense of Hearing is the Ear. 
The Sensation is called Hearing. 

For the development of this Sense, we have all the Sounds 
of the human voice; of business, of musical instruments; of 
birds, beasts, insects ; of forests, waters, &c. 

8. The science and art of hearing is called Acous 

TICS. 

In Acoustics, sounds have three distinctions ; 

First, Pitch, which considers sounds as high or low. 

Second.' Khythm, which considers sounds as lo7ig or short 

Third. Force or Dynamics, which considers sounds a& 
soft or loud. 

The principal and almost the only difficulty, found in teaching 
Reading and Singing, is in Training the hearing to detect the distinc- 
tions of the sounds to be produced, since the learner soon imitates the 
most of those sounds, which the hearing properly detects. 

An exceedingly erroneous opinion has been entertaiiied by many, 
although it has been disproved in numberless instances, that " Some 
have an ear for music and others have no ear for music." 

Take the above erroneous opinion in connection with th* 
following well-established facts. 

a. A child never uses its voice in those dead, nor in thoih) 
horridly screechy monotones, which are heard so frequently 
in the school-room, unless those tones have been taught to it 
and made habitual by long-continued use. 

b. Those using the tones above mentioned, and who are 
generally said to lack the " musical ear," were taught to do 
so, either in the schools, or by the example of those by whom 
they were surrounded in earlier years. 

c. That children, whose Sense of Hearing or musical tal- 
ent has been cultivated, uniformly have an '^ ear for music." 

d. That, of late years, very many adults, who had been 
declared to be of that unfortunate class " having no ear for 

24 



554 ORGAN OF TASTE AND SMELLING. 

music/' have been found to possess really remarkable gifts 
in this respect. 

It is utterly impossible to estimate the amount of evil 
which this one erroneous opinion has exerted, not only on in- 
dividuals but on the entire race, in repressing all attempts 
for development on the part of those by whom it was most 
needed. 

The truth of the whole matter is probably this ; "All^ who 
can hear and spealc^ are horn with " musical ears^^ and voices 
too ; and the failure to use these gifts is owing to the lack 
of development ; while the incorrect use of them is due to 
an improper development. To attribute the failure to a 
deficiency in gifts is as much at variance with the truth it- 
self, as to attribute to a lack of the natural gift, the want of 
vigor in the arm of a Hindoo devotee, who has persisted in 
holding that arm in one position until the power of moving it 
has been lost. 

9. The Organ of the Sense of Taste is in the 
Mouth. 

To develop this Sense, we have the Flavors of fruits, meats, 
drinks, grains, vegetables, spices, &c. 

1©. There is no generally developed Science of 
Tasting, as there is of Seeing and Hearing. The only 
approach to it being found in the rules and recipes for 
confectioneries, cooking, making drinks, &c. 

Viewed in its relations to health, and the consequent Phys- 
ical development of the human race, it is well worthy of be- 
ing reduced to a Science and taught as such. 

In regard to Flavors, bodies are agreeable or disagreeable ; 
sweet or saccharine ; sour or acid ; flat, insipid, or alkaline ; 
and without flavor or neutral. 

1 1 . The Organ of the Sense of Smelling is in the 

KOSE. 

To develop this Sense, we have all the varied Odors of 
flowers, plants, gums, &c. 



ORGAN OF FEELING AND MUSCULAR SENSE. 555 

12. The only approach to a Science of Smelling is 
in the Rules for making Perfumery. Its relations to 
health, in regard to pure air or ventilation, entitle it to 
a more thoroughly scientific consideration. 

In regard to Odors, substances are pleasant or unpleasant, 
agreeable or disagreeable, exciting or pungent, stinking or 
nauseating, and odorless, 

13. The Organ of the Sense of Feeling is in the 
Skin ; and the Organ of the Sense of Touch is in the 
TIPS of the fingers. 

For the development of this Sense, we have distances^ the 
different kinds of surface^ and the forms of bodies. 

Although great use is made of this Sense, both in ordinary 
life and in certain of the arts and professions, yet it has no 
developed Science. 

In this Sense, distances are considered as length, breadth, 
width, thickness, and height ; surfaces as smooth or rough ; 
even or uneven ; plane, broken, or curved ; vertical, inclined, 
or horizontal ; angular, circular, elliptical, or oval ; and per- 
pendicular or parallel. 

14. The Organ of the Muscular Sense is in the 

Muscles. 

To develop this Sense, we have weight, resistance, exer- 
cise, rest, food, clothing, cleanliness, &;c. 

15. The Science of the Muscular Sense is found in 
Physiology and in the Mathematics. 

While the latter is studied, or rather while a superabun- 
dance of time is wasted on the latter, the former is, as a gen- 
eral thing, totally neglected. What can be of greater prac- 
tical importance to every human being, than a knowledge of 
himself? Yet the Sciences, which teach us what we are, are 
the most neglected, hence, their laws are the least known and, 
of course, the most violated. Persons, who would blush to 



556 DEVELOPMENT OP THE SENSES. 

fail in spelling a useless ^vord or in adding an abstract exam- 
ple, tliink it no reproach both in words and in deeds to ex- 
hibit the grossest ignorance of themselves and ail the laws of 
their being. 

IS. The more our Sense§ are nsed the more easily 
and correctly do they enable us to gain a knowledge 
of external objects. Hence the necessity of using and 
thus developing them. 

For this purpose the Natural Sciences are peculiarly fit- 
ted, and hence should be presented early in the student's 
course of studies. 

17. The Senses properly developed are the means^ 
by which we enjoy whatever is beautiful in nature or 
in art. 

The enjoyment of one beautiful object of sight enables us 
to enjoy another still more, and also leads us to study what 
is pleasing in nature, in art, and in ourselves; to improve 
the natural features of a landscape, the style of architecture, 
the motions and dress of individuals, and heautiful forms. 
The enjoyment of music leads us to study pleasant sounds, 
as in singing, reading, speaking, and in musical instruments. 
The enjoyment of pleasant flavors and odors leads us to cul- 
tivate the means, by which they are produced. 

1 8 . The cultivation and development of the Senses 
not only influence our tastes and desires^ but also our 
feelings and thoughts. 

In the language of another, " The Senses like all the forces 
of nature are liable to be misdirected and perverted in their 
action. When thus falsely developed, they produce evil ef- 
fects, which are the opposite of the good effects produced by 
their legitimate action. This law is of universal application 
to all active forces. Developed in their lower degrees, the 
senses give rise to coarseness, vulgarity, licentiousness, and 
brutality. Without refined cultivation, the sense of taste 



FIRST EXERCISE. 557 

leads to grossness of appetite, to gluttony, to gormandism, to 
drunkenness, and intemperance. Hearing is pleased with 
noise and vociferation ; sight, with tawdry forms and colors ; 
touch, with rude textures and uncleanly objects. The same 
senses developed in their higher degrees, harmoniously dis- 
ciplined and refined in their action, excite the love of mate- 
rial order, elegance, and beauty ; guard man against coarse- 
ness, vulgarity, slovenliness, and sensual discords generally ; 
Btimulate him to refined tastes and habits ; and awaken in him 
the sentiment of universal art." 



First Exercise. 

Let the following questions be read by the pupils in turn ; each pupil answering 
the question, which he has just read. Other questions of a similar nature should be 
proposed by the Teacher and by the pupils. 

When reviewing let the pupils write the answers in full, and give original il- 
lustrations. 

{A pupil reads.) 1. "What is Sentential Language? {and then an- 
swers.) Sentential Language is language used to contain or to convey 
knowledge. {And so forth ivith the other questions.) 

2. Are the words in the columns of a Spelling-Book Sentential lan- 
guage ? 

3. What is meant by the term knowledge ? 

4. What is the difference between knowledge and understanding? 

5. "What is that called, which men have learned concerning the 
Stars ? 

6. What is that called, which men have learned about digging ores 
from the earth 1 — about making clothing, tools, &c. 

When a part of a question is omitted, the piipH^ to whom the question comes, 
should supply the part omitted, taking the previous question as a model. Thus " What 
is that called, which men have learned about making clothing?" &c. with tools. 

7. What is that kind of knowledge called, which we find for our- 
selves ? 

8. Have you any Personal knowledge of steamboats ? — any Primary 
knowledge of steamboats ? 

9. Have you any personal knowledge of the pain caused by blows in- 
flicted on yourself ? — on another ? 

10. What is the difference between Primary and Personal KnowL 
ige ? 

11. Is your knowledge of sweet and sour Primary or Personal? 



558 FIRST EXERCISE. 

12. JIow is [he jfr&t part of onr Primary and Personal Knowledge 
gained ? 

13. Why is our Primary Knowledge sometimes called ''Our Knowl- 
edge of external things ?" — " sensuous Knowledge V' 

14. How many Senses are mentioned ? 

15. Do the Senses belong to the mind or to the body ? 

16. Give the name and use of each of the Senses ? 

17. By what sense do you distinguish odors'? — light? — force? — 
forms ? — colors ? — weight ? — flavor 1 

18. Is your knov/le^'ge of water personal 1 Through how many and 
what senses liave yop. ^^earned it ? 

. 19. Apply the tVN^o questions in the 18th Paragraph to each of the fol- 
lowing objects ; fire, ^ood, fruits, flowers, clothing. 

20. What is the diiference between the Sense of Sight, and the Or- 
gan of the Sense of '^^ght 1 

21. Does the Or<^<^n belong to the mind or to the body ? 

22. Do you l^now a person, whose Sense of Sight is remarkably well 
developed ? If so^ ^« xt natural, or the result of using and thus devel- 
oping this Sense ? 

What is that per^^n's occupation 1 

What Organ beJrvruvs to this Sense 1 

Whr.t is a pers':>n said to be, who is deprived of this Sense ? 

Wh'.t objects s^vve as lessons in developing this Sense ? 

Car it be devpl^necl without giving attention to these objects ? 

23. Now you n7,a7 apply the questions in article 22 to each of the 
follo-sT ng siibie^*;s ; touch, taste, smell, feeling, hearing, muscular 
force 

24. ^f one be deprived of the Organs of Sense, can he have a per- 
sonal rnoYv'l'?dge of external things ? 

25 What studies are best fitted to develop the Senses ? Why ? 

26 Does the proper gratification of the Senses increase or diminish 
their opacity lor enjoyment ? 

27 To what Sense does music appeal, and what is the organ of that 
sense 

23 Apply the questions in the 27th article to these ; drawing, ba,ll- 
play' ^g, fruit-growing, reading, the cultivation of flowers, the use of 
toba'^^, snuff, elegant dress, and odors. 

29 Can the Senses be falsely or improperly developed ? 

3^ When improperly developed, to what does the Sense of sight 
lea^ ^ When properly developed, to what ? 

" * . Apply the last two questions to each of these ; hearing, touch 
tai?"-.e, smell. 

These questions or exercises are to be regarded only as examples 
F "aiilar exercises should accompany every recitation. 



EXTERNAL KNOWLEDGE PERFECTED. 559 



Mental Faculties. 

1. Our Knowledge of External Things, or Sensuous 
Knowledge, is perfected by Seven Mental Operations 
or Actions; 1. Sensation, -2. Attention, 3. Perception, 
4. Memory^ 5. Suggestion^ 6. Association^ 7. Imag- 
ination^ 8. Reason, 9. Judgment. 

9. Sensation is the knowledge that an impression is 
made on an organ of sense by an external object. 

Sensation is a waking-up process, by which the mind is 
aroused to exert itself. Its accuracy and readiness depend on 
the development of the Senses, and the consequent develop- 
ment of their Organs. 

3. Attention is the ability to keep the mind directed 
to the proper object at the proper time. 

As the Organs of sense may be improved by keeping 
them in a sound and healthy state, so may the sensations, 
produced through these organs* be improved by careful at- 
tention to them. Notice the difference in the capacity to dis- 
tinguish and appreciate sounds between the skilful musician, 
and a person, who has never attended to the cultivation of 
this Sense. By attending to the sensation of hearing the 
musician has gained the powder to hear with so much more 
ease and correctness than the other. 

4. The repeated performance of an action, which is 
forcible at fir^;t, soon becomes habitual, and ^' We all 
know something of the power of habit. It becomes a 
second nature, and sometimes more than a match for 
Nature herself." 

At first the student of music finds it difficult to trace a melody, 
or simple succession of single sounds ; at length, however, 



560 ATTENTION AND INATTENTION. 

by attention thereto (we sometimes call \X ^practice or stiidy)^ 
he is able almost without effort, not only to produce the mel- 
ody, but also its accompanying harmonies ; to sing the words 
and to direct the performances of many others. 

Monsieur Jullien conducted concerts, in which ten or 
twelve hundred vocal and instrumental performers took parts, 
and the sounds were produced not only by the voices and or- 
dinary musical instruments, but also by means of anvils, 
boxes, horse-fiddles, &:c. The effect was not only pleasing 
but delightful. 

Notice also the difference in the ability to combine num- 
bers rapidly and well between " little Willie," studying " the 
tables," and Mr. William, the skilful accountant or engineer. 
All is the result of hahit growing from attention. 

5. Inattention is a state of mind opposed to atten- 
tion, and every one, who is not habitually attentive, is 
habitually inattentive ; there is no intermediate or 
neutral state. 

Probably there is no one, who is entirely devoid of the abil- 
ity to ^'K the attention on some certain objects. The great 
fault is that, while all attend so much to their Sensations, or to 
what is passing in connection with the Senses, so few attend 
sufficiently to what else is passing in their minds. The former, 
like the brutes, become gross and sensuous in their habits 
and enjoyments. 

" He, who from childhood has accustomed himself to neg- 
lect all his sensations, excepting those which minister only to 
his animal wants and pleasures, has lost what the gold of 
California can not redeem. If such has been his course up 
to manhood, the die is cast ; he may he much of an animal 
hut he never will he much of a manP — Winslow, 

" There is a class of intellectual habits, habits of inatten- 
tion^ by which the mind, long unaccustomed to have the at- 
tention steadily directed to any important object, becomes 
frivolous and absent, or lost amid its own waking dreams. 
A mind in this condition becomes incapable of following a 



PERCEPTION — MEMORY. 56] 

train of reasoning, and even of ob.^erving facts with accuracy 
and tracing their relations. Hence nothing is more ()|!|)osed 
to the cultivation of intellectual character ; and when such 
a person attempts to reason or to follow out a cour-e of in 
vestigation, he falls into slight and partial views, unsound de- 
ductions, and frivolous arguments. This state of mind, 
therefore, ought to be carefully avoided by the young ; since, 
when it is once established, it can be removed only by a 
long and laborious eiFort, and after a certain period of life is 
probably irremediable." — Ahercrombie, 

6. Percejjtion is the mental process, by which, in the 
first place, we discover our sensations and their causes, 
and, in the second place, discover our other mental 
operations. 

As when a sleeper is disturbed, he is sensible of it before 
he perceives what it is that disturbs him, so the mind may 
be conscious of a Sensation before it perceives the cause of 
that sensation. 

7. These Perceptions are sometimes called Ideas or 
Notions, 

The habit of attention is as necessary and as productive 
of good results in its influences on Perception, as on Sensa- 
tion. It is not sufficient that objects produce sensations 
through the organs of sense, the Perceptive Faculties must 
be aroused to attend to them. It is by this exercise that the 
Perceptive Faculties are developed. 

8. Memory \^ the mental act of retaining our pres- 
ent and recalling our past perceptions, in order that 
they may be compared and combined to produce new 
kinds of knowledge. 

Memory should not be confounded with Association. Mem- 
ory simply recalls or retains a single perception without con- 
necting it with any other pei'ception. 



562 PERCEPTION AxND CONCEPTIOX. 

The habit of attention has a strong infliience on the re* 
suits, produced by the memory. In order aiat a fact may be 
well remembered, it must be attentively considered until it 
becomes somewhat familiar. 

A great deal is said about " Cultivating the memory,'^ 
" Exercising the memory," &c., as if the memory justly 
claimed more attention than all the other intellectual powers. 
So far from objecting, we even demand its most perfect cul- 
ture, but only as being one function^ and as such, only en- 
titled to its proper share of attention. Just as in training the 
physical powers while we seek to develop the muscles, we 
reject a system of diet or of exercise, which would develop 
muscles to the neglect or at the expense of the bones and 
nerves, or either of these to the neglect of the others. 

To produce the best specimens of our race, all the powers, 
moral, social, intellectual, and physical, should be equally and 
harmoniously developed. 

No faculty of the mind is more abused and perverted than 
the Memory. Instead of carefully following such a First or 
Primary course of exercises, as would naturally tend to 
mental development, and then following this course with an 
Advanced or Secondary course, arranged in that order, in 
which the mind most easily and surely acquires Knowledge, 
the learner is too often required to commit and to repeat the 
words of an author ; and oftentimes the portions committed 
are only answers forming a part of a subject, of which the 
question itself is the other part. Thus the questioner re- 
cites one part of the lesson and the pupil the other part, and 
hence very often fails to hioiv either. 

Memorized Knowledge is not practical or useful ; nor can 
it become such until it has been subjected to the higher men 
tal operations. 

9. Our knowledge of a 'present sensation is called 
a Perception^ vrhile the memory of a past sensation is 
called a Conception. 

Thus while hearing music, I have a perception of the 
sensations caused by it ; the memory or remembrance of 
these is called a conception of the sensations. 



SUGGESTION — ASSOCIATION. 563 

10. Suggestion is the mental act by which an 
ideal, with its idea of relation, leads the mind to 
another ideal belonging to them. The relation of 
the second ideal to the first may be a familiar one, or 
it may be one altogether new. 

Thus, while Milton was busy with his books, some- 
thing suddenly suggested to him that he had a wife 
somewhere out in the country. 

Again, the great scarcity of human muscular force 
required in the works of haying and harvesting, nat- 
urally enough suggested the idea of adding the mus- 
cular force of the horse, through the mowing and 
reaping machines. 

11. Association is that mental process of retain- 
ing, or of recalling ideals joined \ij cause and effect, 
or by comparison. 

Association is often confounded with memory. The dif- 
ference is this; association requires two or more objects ; 
memory requires but one. 

Association retains and recalls one thing by its connection 
with another; memory recalls it without that connection. 

While our power to remember is exceedingly limited, and 
very liable to fail entirely, our powers of association seem to 
be almost unlimited and ever-enduring. Old people forget 
the events of yesterday, while those of childhood are recalled 
with distinctness. The events of yesterday were trusted to 
the memory, those of childhood to association. 

" Lulled in the countless chambers of the brain, 
Our thoughts are linked by many a hidden chain. 
Awake but one, and lo, what myriads rise ! 
Each stamps its image, as the other flies." 

Memory is the first mental faculty impaired b}^ age, while 
association remains to the last unimpaired. 



564 ASSOCIATION. 

A lady, who in early life had cultivated a taste for floTvers, 
retained her fondness for them to a remarkable extent, and 
also her knowledge of their names, even after she had for- 
gotten the names of all her children. The flowers had re- 
mained unchanged and each told its name by the associations 
of former years. The children had changed to adults and 
thus failed to renew those associations. 

A most excellent instance of the difference between mem- 
ory and association is found in the ability to retain the names 
of persons and the dates of events. 

Almost every person remembers the face of another, while 
but very few retain the name. Now, suppose that every 
one could associate the face and the name of a person, then 
the face would suggest the name. It is by this means that 
many do recall the names. 

Again, we easily remember an event, and as easily lose its 
date. Suppose that we attach numerical values to certain 
words and associate the words, bearing the date, with the 
event, it would be impossible to forget the date. Systems of 
this kind are called Mnemonics. 

1^. There are three kinds of Association ; the Ar- 
bitrary or Fictitious^ the Incidental or Local ^ and the 
Philosophical or NaturaL 

13. Arbitrary or Fictitious Association is the union 
of two or more ideas simply because we choose to join 
them. 

When I tie a string around my finger to enuble me to re- 
member an errand, there is no other connection between the 
string and the errand than that I choose to associate them. 

" When your children shall ask their fathers in time to 
come, saying, ' What mean these stones ?' Then shall ye let 
your children know, saying, ' Israel came over this Jordan 
on dry land.' " (Josh., chap, iv.) 

" And the bow shall be in the cloud ; and I will look upon 
it, that I may reiiemh; r the everlasting covenant between 



LOCAL ASSOCTATTON. 5()5 

God and eyevj living creature of all flesh, that is upon the 
earth." (Gen., chap, ix.) 

14. Local or Incidental Association is that, in 
which one place or incident recalls another place or in- 
cident. 

In travellinoj" a second time over the same road, the differ^ 
ent objects recall the previous time ; the persons, who were 
with us ; the remarks, which were made, and our own feel- 
ino^s and thouo;hts. 

15. Animals possess this in common with men. 

Thus, the horse shows alarm on approaching a place 
where at some previous time he has been frightened. 

The knowledge of language, which brutes possess, is prob- 
ably this ; that with particular sounds, particular incidents or 
feelings are associated ; as pain, with the crack of a whip ; 
and eating, with the sound of the feed-box. 

16. Local Association causes those varied emo- 
tions, which we feel when revisiting the home of our 
childhood, and the scenes of former years. It of?3n 
leads us to attach great importance to objects. 

*' ^Tis bound by a thousand bands to my heart, 
Not a tie will break, not a link will start. 
Would you learn the spell '^ A mother sat there ; 
And a sacred thing is that old arm-chair/' 

It has been said that '* Geography is one of the lights of 
history." This is true only when the locality of every histor- 
ical event is carefully observed; for not only do localities 
serve to explain history, but, when the locality of an event 
has been made familiar, it afterward serves to recall the event 
and the event in turn recalls the place. Therefore, m study- 
ing history the localities should he made familiar, 

17. Local or Incidental Association furnishes a 
strong reason why we should never do a wrong or bad 



566 NATURAL ASSOCIATION. 

deed. The place, wherein it was committed, and the 
person, against whom, will always be monuments to re- 
mind us of our wrong. It also furnishes a strong mo- 
tive to, virtuous deeds, whose remembrance will always 
be a source of happiness. 

*^ How soft the music of those village-bells, 
Falling at intervals upon the ear. 
With easy force it opens all the cells, 
Where feeling slept. Whenever I have heard 
A ki'idred melody, the scene recurs. 
And with it all its pleasures and its pains." 

I§. Philosophical OT Natural Association is when 
the ideas have natural relations, as being parts of the 
same whole ; or having the relation of cause and effect. 

Thus, the head, body, and limbs, are parts of the whole 
person, and hence have a natural connection, so that if one 
be mentioned, the other is readily suggested. 

If I mention the parts of a plant in the confused order; 
trunk, bud, limb, root, fruit, pith, twig, seed, bark, leaf, wood, 
branch, blossom, it would trouble another to reproduce them 
in this order ; but they may be easily reproduced, if stated 
in this, the natural order; roots, trunk, branches, limbs, 
twigs, buds, leaves, blossoms, fruit, seeds; bark, wood, pith. 

" A person was one day boasting, in the presence of Foote, 
the comedian, of the wonderful facility, with which he could 
commit an3nhing to memorj', when the modern Aristoph- 
anes said he would write down a dozen lines in prose, 
which he could not commit to memory in as many minutes. 
The man of great memory accepted the challenge ; , a wager 
was laid, and Foote produced the following: — 'So she went 
into the garden, to cut a cabbage-leaf to make an apple-pie, 
and at the same time a great she-bear, coming up the street, 
pops its head into the shop. What, no soap ? So he died, 
and she very imprudently married the barber, and there were 
present the Piciniunies, and the Joblillies, and the Garyulies, 
and the grand Panjandrum himself, with the little round 



CAU^^K AND EPPKCT. 567 

button at the tO}) ; and tliey all fell to playing catch as catch 
can, till the gun[)owder ran out of the iieels of their boots.' 
The story adds that Foote won the wager. And it is very 
evident, that statements" of this description, utterly disregard- 
hig the order of nature and events, must defy, if carried to 
any great length, the strongest memory." — Upham. 

1®. The relation of Cause and Effect is that con- 
nection of objects or events, which regards the one as 
producing the other. 

If one dies after swallowing poison, we say the Cause of 
the death was the poison ; the Effect of the poison was the 
death. 

2®. We learn the relation of Cause and Effect by 
observation. 

Thus, if two events happen several times in succession, we 
take the one for the cause and the other for the effect^ and 
always afterward expect the one to produce or cause the 
other That is, we associate the two. A child having fallen 
down a step will be more cautious afterward, because the 
local association will suggest the fall, which the child natu- 
rally associates or regards as the cause of the pain. 

SI . Our ideas of what is wholesome for food, suit- 
able for clothing, proper in society, true in science, 
jpure in morals, and right in religion, find their basis 
in our firm conviction, that objects, actions, and 
thoughts are never single ; that they exist as Cause 
and Effect, and that we are bappy or miserable just as 
we seek proper objects, do proper acts, and think 
proper thoughts. That is, we feel conscious that our 
happiness is the natural result or effect of our own 
virtue ; and that our unhappiness is equally the effect 
of our own wrong doing. 

"Our consciences excuslno^ or condemning? us." 



568 CHAIX OF CAUSES AND EFFECTS, 

9S. EULES IX REGARD TO THE RELATION OF CAUSE 
AND EFFECT. 

First Rule We must be careful to Ttnoio that two 
tilings have the relation of caMse and effect hefore 
acting too confidently in the lelief. 

It is foolish to suppose, because I '^saw the moon oyer my 
right shoulder," and afterward was successful, that, therefore, 
" to see the moon over the riofht shoulder is a sio^n of grood 
luck." What possible relation can the two have ? 

Second Rl^le. There must he a necessary connec- 
tion heticeen the two things or circumstances in or- 
der to have the relation of cause and effect ; and this 
must he learned either hy experience or hy testimony. 

Thus, I must not swallow poisons, because their natural ef- 
fect is to debilitate the body and to destroy life. 

I must " loye my neighbor as myself," because it is doing 
right, and my own happiness is the ffect of doing right. 

Causes. Effects. 

Thirst produces faintness ; 

Faintness causes weakness ; 

Weakness begets debility; 

Debility results in sickness ; 

and vSickness ends in death. 

Here we haye " a chain of causes and effects." The Cause, 
Thirst, producing for its Immediate effect, faintness ; for its 
Remote effect, death ; and for its Intermediatp effects, weak- 
ness, debility, and sickness. 

Effects. Causes. 

1. He became rich by patient industry 

2. The fog was dispelled by the rising sun. 

Causes. Effects. 

3. The prosperity of the wicked shall slay them. 

4. Wisdom giveth life to them, that have it. 



COMPARISON. 569 

23. Coviiiarison is finding the likeness or the unlike- 
ness of objects. 

24. Comparison is of tiuo kinds ; namely, Compari- 
son by Resemblance and Comparison by Contrast. 

25. Comparison by Resemblance is finding wherein 
objects are alike. This is sometimes called Simile. 

1. Hills in form and in the materials, of which they are 
composed, are liJce mountains. 

2. " As smoke to the eyes and vinegar to the teeth, so is 
the sluo^o-ard to them, that send him.'' 

26. Comparison by Contrast is finding wherein ob- 
jects differ. This is sometimes called Antithesis. 

1. Hills differ from mountains in size. 

2. Men are often unlike in size, in temper, in knowledge, 
and in virtue. 

27* RuLE/6>r the use of Comparison. 

Whenever it is possible^ each neio item of Tcnowl- 
edge should be explained by comparing it with that^ 
which is already familiar. Especially should this 
ride be obeyed in describing objects not presented to 
the senses. 

Thus, in teaching language, the pupil should be made fa- 
miliar with the terms, principles, and rules of language in 
connection with his native tongue, and then all other lan- 
guages should be studied by comparison with this. By so 
doing, pupils will always go from what is known to what is 
unknown. 

Many who do not understand their own, are now required 
to study an unknown language, which is to be translated 
into their own. How can a pupil, under such circumstances, 
be expected to learn either language correctly ? Ought we to 
be surprised that so many get only a smattering of the two ? 

When this principle of teaching by comparison is applied 
to the '^ Arabic system of Notation," in teaching arithmetic, 



570 IMAGINATION. 

its effects are truly surprising. We then begin to see that, 
" arithmetic, both as a science and as an art, is, indeed, only 
in. its infancy." 

28. Imagination is the mental faculty, which, in the 
first place, forms new combinations of that knowledge, 
which has been learned by the faculties preceding it ; 
and, in the second place, of that knowledge, which we 
have learned through the exercise of all the mental 
faculties. 

Thus children use their playthings to represent the per- 
sons, with whom they imagine or fancy themselves to be 
holding intercourse. No matter hovv^ little the playthings re- 
semble the persons, the children call each thing by the name 
of the person it represents, and address it, as if really a con- 
scious being like themselves. 

When the child grows older the names of the persons, 
without the things, will answer the purpose. The difference 
between the child and the adult is not in the mental opera- 
tions used, since these are the same in both, but in the means, 
by which each is assisted. The child requires the material 
objects to assist its mental operations, while the adult needs 
only the names of the persons. Both alike are " building 
castles in the air." 

Robert Fulton, by seeing the paddle-wheels of a ferry-boat 
turned by horses and afterward by seeing a steam-engine 
working a pump, was led to imagine a boat, whose paddle- 
wheels should be turned by a steam-engine, and thus invented 
the steam-boat. He neither invented the engine nor the 
paddle-wheel, .but simply imagined the union of the two in- 
ventions. 

29. The term Imagination is often applied to those 
Ideas or Notions of the forms or properties, which we 
ascribe to objects unknown to us except by name or by 
description. These imaginations are also called Ideai^ 
or Notions, 



CONCEPTION — ABSTRACTION. 57 1 

Thus the image, which the name of a person well-known 
to us recalls, is a conception^ while the image brought to our 
minds by the name of a person, wliom we have never seen, 
is an imagination. Both are mental pictures. A dream is 
a mental picture also. 

While reading descriptions we should pause frequently 
and endeavor to imagine or produce mental pictures of the 
objects described. 

30. Sometimes, by an effort of the Imagination, we 
consider a property of things separately. As when 
we speak of number^ size^ color,, &c., not in connec- 
tion with objects. This action of the Imagination is 
called Abstraction^ which means to take from or to 
separate, 

SI. All human progress depends upon the proper 
development and exercise of the Imagination. 

The inventor must see his invention in all its parts and 
workings as perfectly and distinctly before it is made, as 
others see it when completed. Hence the necessity of using 
the Imagination in all attempts to promote Physical Ex- 
cellence ; as in the Useful Arts, agriculture, manufactures, 
economy, health, &c. ; also in the Fine Arts, as reading, paint- 
ing, music, sculpture, gardening, &c. ; to promote Social 
Order, as in the different relations of mankind in forming 
society ; in those relations, which are formed by nature, by 
law, by necessity, by the affections, &c. ; to promote Intel- 
lectual Development both by inciting us to acquire a 
knowledge of what is true, orderly, useful, and beautiful in 
science, and to lead us to study the Creator through his 
works and through his w^ord — "The book of Nature, and 
the book of Grace ;*' and to promote Moral Excellence, 
by enabling us to imagine a Being possessing virtues superior 
to our own. For mankind wnll be good and virtuous only in 
proportion as they are able to imagine a Being, who is good 
and virtuous. " Show me the Deity a man worships, and 1 



572 HUMAN PROGRES?^— REASON'. 

will show you that man's morality." All religions knowledge 
to a certain degree depends on the Imagination for its ap- 
preciation. 

We must first form some ideal or model character, after 
which to form our own ; hence the importance that all, but 
most especially the youth, should habitually observe and re 
member those traits of character and those habits of others, 
which are pleasing or displeasing, and, therefore, to be imitate 
or to be shunned. Remembering, that " Whatever in other 
is pleasing to us, will, in us, be pleasing to others." 

The imagination is always an active faculty. When not 
employed in furnishing models for improvement, it will be 
found actively and busit^ engaged in '^ imagining vain things." 
When neglected, it at length loses its capacity for good, and 
then " imagines evil and only evil continually." Hence come 
human fears and vain superstitions. 

Imagination " tends to the cultivation of sympathy and the 
benevolent affections, and promotes all those feelings, which 
exert so extensive an influence in the duties of friendship, 
and the harmonies of civil and social intercourse. We may 
even say, that we exercise the imagination, when we en- 
deavor to act upon that high standard of morals, which re- 
quires us ' to do unto others^ as we icoiild they should do unto 
usl For in this mental act we must imagine ourselves in 
the situation of other men, and, in their characters, judge of 
our own conduct toward them," — AhercromMe, 

33. Reason is the mental process of examining the 
correctness of our perceptions, and also of the com- 
binations, produced by the imagination. It is also that 
mental act, by which we draw new truths from those 
already known. 

Thus, when Fulton had imagined the Engine on board of 
the boat, he would begin to reason as to the possibility of 
driving the boat by this means. He would recall the various 
means, as sails, oars, and wheels, by which he had seen boats 



REASON — INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE. 573 

driven. He would remember that horses turned the wheel 
and would reason, that the engnne could be made equal in 
power to any number of horses. He would also reason, that, 
if the wheels were made to revolve, the boat must move, 
since not the kind of force, bj which they were turned, 
but the quantity^ would affect the boat's motion. Thus he 
would satisfy himself of the possihility of propellino^ a boat 
by steam. Then he would examine the probability, and 
forthwith the increased facilities for transporting passengers 
and merchandise and also the freedom from detention by 
winds and tides would be suggested, and then he would feel 
that the prohahility of steam-driven boats needed no longer 
to be doubted. 

Lastly, he would look at the necessity of this or of some other 
improved method of propelling boats for the accommodation 
of the rapidly-increasing demands of trade and travel- 

33. The examination of the possibilities, the prob- 
abilities, and the necessities or demands, vre call Re- 
flecting^ Thinkings or Reasoning. The Results are 
called Conclusions^ Reflections^ Thoughts^ Reasons^ 
Opinions^ &c. 

A person, who will not reason in regard to his actions, but 
follows obstinately his own desires, is said to be unreasonable, 
unthinking or thoughtless, unreflecting or without reflection, 
obstinate, &c. 
34:. Thinking or Reasoning is divided into two 
kinds ; the Concrete or Subsensuous, and the Abstract 
or Super sejisuous, 

33. Concrete or Subsensuous Thinking is that, in 
which the things themselves are considered in connec- 
tion with their properties or actions. 

Thus, if I think that two cents and three cents make five 
cents, it is a Concrete or Subsensuous thought. So, if I 
think of great oceans, great rivers, great mountains, great 
plains, and great gulfs, I have a Concrete or Subsensuous 
thought. 



574 ABSTEACT THINKING. 

Ao^ain, if I say " Mary and Jane sing charmingly ;" sing 
is used in the concrete^ because it is used with the singers* 
Mary and Jane. 

3©. Abstract ov Super sensuous Thinking or Reason 
ing is that, in which properties and actions are con- 
sidered distinct from the objects, to which they belong. 

Tlius, two and three are Jive is an Abstract or Supersensu- 
ous thought. So, thinking of greatness apart from objects is 
an Abstract or Supersensuous thought. 

Many attempts have been made to find the precise differ- 
ence between mankind and brutes. Probably it may be 
found in the capacity to tliiiik in the abstract. In man, this 
faculty seems to be unlimited in the extent of its develop- 
ment and in the range of its investigations. To v>^hat extent 
brutes possess it, we do not know, but it must be in a very 
limited degree, if at all. In regard to numbers, the human 
intellect seems to gain new powers only as it leaves the con- 
crete and exercises itself in the abstract ; while brutes seem 
to have but faint ideas of them, even v^dien connected with 
things or in the concrete. While brutes are mainly confined 
within the range of their senses, man's limits are the infini- 
tesimal and the infinite. 

37, We must learn to think in the Concrete before 
we can learn to think in the Abstract. 

The beginner soon perceives that two boys and three boys 
are five boys; two men and three men are- five men; two 
cents and three cents are ^yq cents ; and that two books and 
three books are fiYe books ; since the familiar or Concrete 
terms serve to explain the less familiar or Abstract terms, 
two and three are jive ; and hence, after a little practice, the. 
Concrete may be changed to the Abstract with a fair degre 
of certainty that the Abstract will be understood. 

How unnatural to compel beginners, especially young chil- 
dren, to commit "the tables" of arithmetic, or the definitions 
and rules of grammar before they have gained any concrete 
or practical ideas of those things, to which these tables and 



STATEMENTS. 575 

'^The Concrete must always 'precede the Abstract." In 

consequence of violating this rule, pupils have learned to 
combine numbers, and yet have been ignorant of arithmetic ; 
and have learned grammar vs^ithout gaining a knowledge of 
the structure and use of language. 

38. Some Statements or Propositions are so simple, 
that we are not conscious of reasoning in regard to 
them. We seem both to understand them and to know 
that they are true, as soon as they are distinctly stated 
to us. These statements are called Intuitive Knowl- 
edge or Knoiuledge by Intuition; as — 

1. A part is less than the whole. 

2. We ouo^ht to love what is wod and hate what is evil. 

3. Whatever is not eternal must have had a beginning. 
Since we can not have a conscious process of reasoning 

before we see and fully know the truth of Intuitive Knowl- 
edge, it follows that Intuitive Knowledge neither requires 
nor admits proof by reasoning. " To know it is to prove it." 

39. Intuitive Knowledge includes two items. 

First; A knowledge of our own Identity^ or the 
knowledge, that we are the same individuals, whom 
we remember as ourselves. 

Second; The truth of certain statements, which are 
called Axioms or First Truths. 

40. We divide Axioms or First Truths into three 
kinds ; Mathematical, Moral, and Metaphysical or 
Ethical. 

* 41. Mathematical Aixioms refer to statements of 
existence, time, space, &c. ; as — 

1. The whole of a thing is greater than any part of it. 

2. Things equal to the same thing are equal to each other. 

49. Moral Axioms refer to our duties to our Crea- 
tor, to our fellow-men, and to ourselves ; as — 



576 METAPHYSICAL AXIOMS. 

1. If God is supremely good, we ought to love him su- 
premely. 

2. There is a moral distinction between truth and false 
hood. 

3. We ought to love what is right and hate what is wrong. 

43. Metaphysical or Ethical Axioms refer to the 
possibility, probability, and necessity ; as — 

1. All things, which do not contradict God's nature, are 
possible with Him. 

2. Every effect must have a cause. 

8. An effect can not precede its cause. 

" In every process of reasoning, we proceed by founding 
one step upon another, which has gone before it; and when 
we trace such a process backward, we must arrive at certain 
truths, w^iich are recognized as fundamental, requiring no 
proof and admitting of none." — Ahei^romhie. 

" The faculty of reasoning exists in different individuals 
in very different degrees. There is the same diversity here, 
which is found to exist in respect to every other mental sus- 
ceptibility and mental process. In some persons it is not 
even powerful enough to meet the ordinary exigencies of life, 
and hardly rescue its possessor from the imputation of idiocy; 
in others it elevates human nature, and bestows extraordinary 
grasp and penetration. And between the extremes of extra- 
ordinary expansion and marked imbecility, there are multi- 
tudes of distinct grades, almost every possible variety." — 
Upham. 

44. All reasoning is founded on these First Truths. 
That is, we go back to a first truth as a starting point, 
from which to reason, because all must admit the truth 
of these statements ; and then by other statements or 
propositions connect these axioms with a conclusion ; as 

All created things must have had a beginning. 
The world is a created thino^. 



REASONING FROM FIRST TRUTHS. 577 

Because^ 1. It shows skill. 

2. It shows design. 

3. It shows adaptation to an end. 

It could not show skill, design, and adaptation without be- 
ing created subject to these. 

But it could not have been created subject to these with- 
out a Creator. '^ •"' 

Since it had a Creator it must be a created thing. 

Therefore, since the earth is a created thing, it must have 
had a beginning. 

Reasoning or Thinking is the most exalted exercise of the 
human intellect, and to its development, our efforts should 
mainly be directed. This is done, when we accustom our- 
selves to seek and to produce the reasons of those things, 
facts, principles, and rules, which are the subjects of our 
studies. 

Mankind alone of all God's creatures are endowed with 
Reason. The other animals have only that lesser light called 
Instinct, which is limited to each individual of the race in its 
exercise and in the extent of its culture, while Reason is un- 
limited in the extent of its development, and capable of an 
ever-increasing expansion of its powers. 

In this exercise all the individuals of each generation may 
participate, and each may take, for its starting point, the high- 
est development reached by the preceding generation. 



Rules to be observed in Reasoning. 

First Rule. JBe careful to make the object or aim 
of all your reasoning the discovery of the truth^ in- 
stead of a silly desire to gain a victory^ as a debater. 

The discovery of truth is the great object of Reasoning or 
Debating, and these again are the best means for finding the 
truth. When used for its discover}^, there is no more noble 
and improving mental exercise. But too often debates de- 

25 



578 RULES FOR REASONING. 

generate into mean efforts to appear to be smart — to gain a 
victory. Acting under this wrong motive, the reasoner is 
easily led to misstate facts and to misquote or pervert author- 
ities, until, by attempting to deceive others, his own mind be- 
comes confused and finally perverted. He becomes incapa- 
ble of distinguishing truth from error, and is finally " left to 
his own delusions to believe a lie.'' 

The writer knew one such. A young man possessing fine 
natural powers of mind. He was seized with a silly desire 
to appear smart and for a time he succeeded. His views, 
new and surprising to us, were so perfectly sustained by cita- 
tion of authorities, and even by quotations, that we were all 
confounded at our own ignorance. At length it was dis- 
cos ered, that his quotations could not be found in the authors 
named, and more than that, oftentimes passages were found 
in those same authorities directly opposed to the pretended 
quotations. From this point the tale is short. Those, who 
knew him, distrusted his statements. He, in turn, seemed to 
distrust others and to lose his own self-respect. He was left 
to his own delusions and became a miserable vagabond. The 
history of the learned Chillingworth furnishes another re- 
markable instance of a similar perversion. 

Second Rule. State carefully the subject to he dis- 
cussed^ and see in what points of it you and the 
others agree^ and in what yoio disagree. Only the 
latter points require discussion. 

Some persons never discuss the point at issue, but begin 
with a complaint that the subject is " too broad," or " too nar- 
row," or " is not the subject," &c. 

If it be a subject, which you can not discuss, keep silence 
and listen to the others, that you may learn from them. 

Third Rule. Consider ca/refully the evidence^ 
which you are about to offer. Try to looTc at it as 
those opposing will looh at it^ and see if you can 
meet the arguments thus suggested. 



RULES FOR REASONING. 579 

Fourth Rule. Classify your arguments or evi- 
deuce hy noticing what parts of it m^ake your mews 
possible, what probable, and what necessary. If 
you use the three hinds^ state them, in the above 
order. 

Question, " Is the Bible the word of God ?" 

I affirm that the Bible is the word of God. By which I 
mean that the Bible is truly a means of communication be- 
tween the Creator and his creatures, and I shall attempt to 
prove it by two kinds of evidence or argument ; the one ex- 
ternal to the Bible, the other internal. 

First, Because it is possiUe for God to make such revela- 
tion, since, by so doing, He would not contradict any of His 
attributes. Nay, more, it does accord with His benevolence, 
and He is all-powerful and wise to do what He wills. It is, 
therefore, possible. 

Second, Because it is probable. For so good a Being 
would not leave His creatures without the means of instruc- 
tion in all, that pertains to their welfare. His other works 
are fitted and have the means for their perfect development. 
Mankind could not learn the spirit's development, as a soul, 
without such revelation. Hence it is probable that the Crea- 
tor would add this revelation for the perfection of His work. 

Third, Because it is necessary, Man can not elsewhere 
find that knowledge, which the Bible contains. I prove this 
by the following facts ; — 

1. The wisest and most earnest of the race had sought it 
for centuries, but had not found it. 

2. It is so peculiar that it is exceedingly dubious whether 
it could ever have been discovered by the race. 

3. Without it, the race could never reach that development, 
for which it is fitted and destined. 

As I have shown that my proposition, concerning the truth 
of the Bible, involves nothing impossible^ nor improbable^ and, 
as I have also shown, that a necessity for such a communica- 
tion does exist, I draw my first conclusion that externally 
we have every reason to believe the Bible to be true. 



580 JUDGMENT. 

I have now only to show, by a similar train of arguments 
as to its internal evidence, that the Bible is that communi- 
cation and my Reasoning reaches its Conclusion, 

43. Judgment is the mental act of choosing or de 
ciding according to the results of our reflections o? 
reasonings. 

Thus, when Fulton had reflected or reasoned upon the pos- 
sibility, the probability, and the necessity or demand for the 
steam-driven boat, he decided or judged that it could and 
would be done, and this mental decision or result we call, 
Judgment. 

Judgment has been likened to a judge, who hears the tes- 
timony and the reasonings of both parties and finally decides 
accordino; to the weiofht of the evidence. 

4S, Judging or forming our opinions before "we 
reason or reflect on a subject, or before we know the 
facts in regard to the matters, is called pre-judging or 
Prejudice, 

It is unjust to others to entertain prejudiced opinions against 
them, and it is wrong toward ourselves. Another has the 
same right to be "judged according to his cause," that I have 
to be judged according to mine. 

An excellent means of exercising and testing our own 
power of judging correctly, may be found in studying very 
carefully the evidence, statements, and arguments offered in a 
case, then sum up and render a judgment before studying 
that, which others have rendered. Then we may compare 
our judgment with the other and thus test both. 

" What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason 1 
How infinite in faculties ! In form and moving, how express 
and admirable I ' In action, how like an angel ! In appre- 
hension, how like a god ! The beauty of the world ! The 
paragon of animals !" — Shahspeare, 



SECOND EXERCISE. 581 



Second Exercise. (See page 557.) 

1. Is your knowledge of snow "external knowledge"? 

2. How many and what mental operations are used in gaining exter* 
nal knowledge ? 

3. What other name may be given to external knowledge ? 

4. What are the ^irs^ and second mental operations to be used in gain- 
ing it ? 

5. If I place a bank-bill between the leaves of a book and oifer to 
give it to the one, who will find it the first time turning the leaves, 
would any one be apt to find it ? Why ? 

6. Why can sailors and farmers generally foretell the weather with a 
good degree of certainty ? 

7. Which will detect more readily the difference in sounds, the musi- 
cian, or one who has paid no attention to music 1 Why 1 

8. What are animal wants ? * 

9. Which is the higher, the gratification of our intellectual, or of our 
animal natures ? Which can the brute enjoy as well as man ? Which 
not ? Why ? 

10. Why does one person understand and know more of a subject 
than another ? 

11. Can we cultivate the habit of attention ? 

12. While the Teacher is explaining a lesson, if James listens atten- 
tively, and John opens a book, or plays with something, will both ac- 
quire the same habit ? Why ? 

13. Which of the two last mentioned will you imitate ? Why? 

14. What is the difi'ercnce between Sensation and Perception ? Per- 
ception and Conception ? 

15. If I say, "How is the surface of the earth divided?" and you 
say, " Into land and water," which of us tells the in^^ole story? 

16. What are the fourth and seventh mental faeulties ? What is their 
lifi*erence ? 

17. Before seeing a thing, did you ever try to imagine how it would 
look ? Did it correspond with the thing, when you saw it ? 

18. Did the inventor of ^he mowing-machine have any idea as to how 
(t would look and worh before it was built ? — sewing-machine ? Why ? 
Steam-engine ? Why ? 

19. Why should we not read the "Narratives" of bad men, as pi- 
/•ates, murderers, &c. ? 

20. How can you tell what in yourself will be pleasing to others ? — 
displeasing ? 

21. How can I best learn how "to do unto my neighbor, as I would 
^ish him to do unto me" ? What is this rule often called '^ 

22. What are the Eio-hth and Ninth mental operations ? 



582 THIKD EXERCISE. 

23. Do all men reason equally well ? Do brutes reason 1 

24. Would you like to be able ^o reason clearly and to judge cor- 
rectly 'i By what means may you develop these powers ? 

25. Name the mental faculties in their order, and try to give an ex- 
ample or illustration of your own with each. 

Third Exescise. (See page 55T,) 

1. Read the following and see which are Concrete and which are Ab- 
stract. 

2. William studies. {Ans. Studies is concrete, because, &c.) 

3. Study increases Knowledge. Sugar is siveet. 

4. '^ Lengthened sweetness long drawn out." 

5. Diligent pupils find a great reward in learning. 

6. ^'Diligence is its own reward." ''Seeing is believing.^* 

7. I saiu the man and believed his story. 

8. Which of these are Concrete and which are Abstract? 

John sees the book. Owls see in the night. Seeing is the result of 
using the sense of sight. 

9. Could you have an idea of color, if you had never been able to 
see ? 

10. Could we learn to think in the Abstract, if we had never thought 
in the Concrete ? 

11. When you read Robinson Crusoe, do you think you see a man 
on an island, &c. ? What do you call that mental picture ? 

12. Do things, seen in dreams, resemble real things? What kind of 
pictures do we see in dreams ? 

13. What is a Statement or Proposition ? Give me one of your 
own. 

14. What am I doing, if I say, "A mill-j}ond is like a lake" ? What 
kind of Comparison is it ? 

15. Day-time is unlike night-time ; the former is light, the latter is 
dai'k. What kind of comparison is this ? 

16. Compare children to adults by resemblance — by contrast. 
A good man to a bad man. 

Washington to Bonaparte, " the uncle," by Simile and by Antithesis. 

17. What kind of association do you use, if you take a stick in youi 
hand to make you remember an errand ? 

18. What kind of association do you call the pile of stones, set up 
by the Israelites ? Washington's monument at Baltimore ? 

19. Suppose an incident happened to you this morning, would you 
be reminded of it by seeing the place to-morrow? 



THIRD EXERCISE. 583 

20. My horse was frightened at a certain place and ran out of the 
path. A few days after, in passing the same place, he ran out again ; 
what kind of association was that ? 

21. Did the sight of a person, place, or thing ever cause you to re- 
call any other person, place, or thing ? What kind of association is 
this? 

22. How can Geography bo said to be " One of the lights of His 
tory" 1 

23. What emotion will I feel to meet one, whom I have injured ? — 
One, whom I have benefited ? 

24. What is the effect of cutting off the head of an animal 1 How 
do you know it will kill that animal, whose ,head has never been cut off 
before ? 

25. Is it wise or foolish to fear ill luck, because we have spilled the 
salt? Why? 

26. What effects do we expect will follow promptness, industry, and 
good conduct in a pupil ? 

27. Make a chain or train of causes and effects on this basis — A 
farmer sows a field with wheat. 

28. John studies because he wishes to learn. (What causes John to 
study? What effect will this, as a cause, produce ? What of this, &c.) 

James studies, because he wishes to win a prize. 
Caesar studies, because he is compelled by the fear of punishment. 
Pompey will not study, because he is too lazy. 

Compare the effects or results produced by John, James, Csssar, and 
F^rapey. 



584 SECOND KIND OF PRIMARY KNOWLEDGE. 



Internal Knowledge. 

I . Our Knowledge of Internal Things or Inter- 
nal Knowledge is learned by observing what our own 
minds do, and the manner in which it is done. It also 
includes those new truths^ drawn from truths already 
known by the mental process called Reasoning, Re- 
flecting, or Thinking, and hence it is often called Ra- 
tional Knowledge. 

3. In acquiring Internal or Rational Knowledge, 
we use all of the Mental Processes except Sensation. 

Thus, I may perceive^ remeiiiher, imagine^ reason^ and 
jitdge^ concerning my own mental operations in perceiving, 
remembering, imagining, reasoning, and judging, or the whole 
may be used on those new truths, derived from what has 
been already learned and stored up in the mind, as '' food for 
thought," as these same mental processes were used at first in 
regard to the sensations themselves. 

S. Again, not only can the Mental faculties be ap- 
plied to our knowledge of the External and thus cau?e 
it to be the basis of our Internal or Rational Knowl- 
edge, but it is absolutely necessary that these faculties 
be so applied ; since ivithout the External or Sensuous 
as a basis.) no Internal or Rational Knoivledge can b 
developed. 

If we wish to get a personal knowledge of the position 
elevation^ and waters, of the state of New York, v/e must 
visit the state itself, and thus obtain our knowledge of these 
things by the aid of our own sensation, perception, and mem- 
ory. The knowledge, thus obtained, is External or Sensu- 
ous^ and is the First Kind of Primary or Personal Knowl 
edo-e. 



KNOWLEDGE FROM TESTIMONY. 585 

Now, if we wish to learn the evenness and the inclination 
of the Surface of the state, we recall our perceptions of its 
elevations ; rememher that we 'perceived mountains, hills, 
table-lands, valleys, and plains ; imagine a surface thus di- 
versified ; reason^ that whenever a surface is thus diversified, 
it must be rough or uneven, and hence judge or decide^ the 
surface of the state of New York to be uneven. 

To find the inclination of its surface, we examine our con- 
ceptions of its elevations and of its internal waters ; those in 
the southern and eastern parts of the state flowing southerly^ 
while those in the northern and western parts flow in a gen- 
eral direction west of north ; and thus we perceive that a 
line drawn from a point a little below the northeastern to an- 
other point in latitude 42d degree, near the southwestern cor- 
ner of the state, would divide the sources of these waters ; 
then a little reflection would show us that the surface of the 
state has two general inclinations or " Watersheds." The 
one Southerly, the other West of North. Thus, we learn the 
Inclination by reflecting^ or thinhing^ or reasoning on our 
external or sensuous Knowledge of the surface, and the 
Knowledge thus learned is called, " Internal" or " Rational," 
and is one part of the Second Kind of our Primary or Per- 
sonal Knowledge. 



Secondary Knowledge oe Testimony. 

1. Our Secondary Knowledge or Knowledge De- 
rived from Testimony is that, which is discovered by 
others and is taught to us. This constitutes by far the 
greater part of what we know. 

We know that there are such Cities as London, Paris, and 
Pekin, and such Countries as Eussia, Austria, and California, 
not because we have seen them for ourselves, but through 
the testimony of others, who have seen them. 
25* 



586 WE MUST TEST SECONDARY KNOWLEDGE. 

3. This Secondary or Derived Knowledge is of tvK) 
Kinds ; First, that whose truth or correctness we can 
test for ourselves ; and Second, that whose truth or 
correctness we can not test or examine for ourselves. 

S. That Secondary Knowledge, which we can test 
for ourselves, is mainly such as we find in the Sciences. 
When we do examine and test its truthfulness, it be- 
comes a part of our Primary Knovfledge. 

Thus^ if I iearn by being told, or from a book, that an acid 
and an alkali in sohition will bubl)le or effervesce wlien mixed 
together, I may believe it without further proof, because I 
have confidence in the wisdom and truthfulness of the source, 
whence I received \i ; but if I stop here, then my knowledge 
of this subject is only Secondary^ or, as it is sometimes famil- 
iarly called, " Knowledge at second hand." If, however, I 
do not stop here but try the experiment for myself and find 
the statement true, then I know it personally and it becomes 
a species of Primary knowledge. In the former case, my 
knowledge is of the Science or Theory, or Theoretical Knowl- 
edge ; in the latter, it is a Knowledge of the Art also, or 
Practical Knowledge. 

4. Hence the following Ride, Test hy experiments 
or Jyy demonst^rations those Propositions, which 
claim to he statements of scientific truths or prin- 
ciples. 

Knowledge made familiar by experiment is always of the 
most interesting and the most useful kind ; and hence the 
Natural Sciences should always be presented both Theoret- 
ically and Practically, Now, it often happens in teacliing, 
that the Natural Sciences, probably from the trouble of mak- 
ing the experiments, are generally made too theoretical, while 
the Mathematics, from the want of text-books, in which the 
science is properly arranged, are made too practical, and, 
therefore, neither is as profitable and interesting as it might 
and jw-ould be if properly presented. 



LAWS OF TESTIMONY. 58/ 

While it is impossible for each one to discover all that is 
necessary for each to know, it is perfectly possible and easy 
for each to examine or to investigate all the statements and 
reasonings, which it is necessary to accept from others. It 
has been said that "a single intellect may investigate the 
facts and reasonings of scientific truths in less time, than a 
million intellects employed in their discovery." 

5. That kind of our Secondary Knowledge, which 
we can not test or examine for ourselves, is chiefly such 
as is found in history, biography, travels, &c. ; and 
most especially that, which pertains to our future state. 

©. When we can not examine the statements for our- 
selves, we must examine the Evidence or Testimony 
concerning them. In so doing, we follow certain Kules 
called the Laws of Testimony. 

7, The Laws of Testimrmy relate ; firsts to the 
Character; second, to the Capacity; thi^'d^ to the 
Motives : fourth^ to the Means op Knowing ; and 

fifth, to OUR OWN PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE. 

First Law of Testimony. Our previous Ttnowledge 
of the CHARACTER of the person,^ from whom we re- 
ceive the statevients, inust he such, as to give us con- 
fidence in his honesty and candor. 

Is he honest f That is, do we know him to be so habitu- 
ally truthful as never to state that for the truth, which he 
knows to be untrue. 

Is he candid f Will he speak his true sentiments un- 
swerved by fear or by favor ? If we can answer both of 
these questions in the affirmative, we may receive his state- 
ments. 

Our knowledge of a future state is learned directly from 
revelations, made to us by God himself, and we can place 
full confidence in his statements, because we can have the 
most entire confidence in his honesty and candor. The only 



588 LAWS OF TESTIMONY. 

chance for error is in our own liability to misunderstand 
him. 

Since we can not have the same degree of confidence in the 
characters of our fellows-men, as in the Divine Character, it 
follows that we can not accept their statements with the same 
confidence ; hence while it is the ^perfection of human wisdom 
to accept the Divine Word with the most entire confidence, 
it is the height of human folly to accept that of our fellow- 
men without attempts to prove it. 

When two men differ, we give preference to the statements 
of the one, whom we believe to be the better man. We have 
confidence in chakacter. 

Second Law of Testimony. We must 'know that 
the person has sufficient intellectual cajjacity to in- 
estigate the subject. 

If a person, whom we know to be utterly ignorant of the 
science of Astronomy, were to predict certain eclipses of the 
sun and give as his authority, that " He had calculated them 
for himself," we would be very likely to reject his statements 
at once ; yet if one, known to be versed in astronomy, fore- 
told the same, we w^ould at once accept them. We have con- 
fidence in CAPACITY. 

Third Law of Testimony. We must he sure that 
the person has no motives or interests^ which would 
induce him to mislead us. 

Suppose that A recommends a certain part of the country 
for the excellence of its soil, its climate, and its inhabitants ; 
and, at another time, B says the same things of it, v/e would 
think B's the better testimony, if we knevvr that A owned a 
large amount of property there, v/hile B owned none. We 
could easily see that A had or might have a motive, while 
w^e could see none on the part of B, and, therefore, would be 
the more disposed to believe his statements. 

Our confidence in Testimony is affected hy the presence or 
absence of motives. 



LAWS OF TESTIMONY. 589 

Fourth Law of Testimony. We must believe that 
the jperson had the vieans or oi^poHunity for ohserv- 
ing and learning the truth of his statements^ 

We would place more confidence in Dr. Kane's statements 
as to facts concerning the Northern Arctic Ocean, than in the 
statements of a geographer, who had never visited those 
regions ; " Because," we Vv^ould say, " the Dr. had the better 
means or opportunity for learning those things." We have 
confidence in opportunity or means. 

Fifth Law of Testimony. Sis statements must 
not conflict loith any well-l<ino'ion or established laws 
of Nature^ unless he states them as miracles. 

If a person, who had been in Spain, should tell me that 
all the water there was as combustible as alcohol, I should 
not believe him, because I know that water is anti-ccmbus- 
tible in its very nature. 

If the occurrence be stated as a miracle, then thiee condi- 
tions must be shown to have existed ; Firsts that the occasion 
was one of sufficient importance to demand a miracle, which 
is only another name for a change or temporary suspension, 
by the Creator, of some of those laws, which he, himself, en- 
joined on matter, and to change which does not involve any- 
thing inconsistent with the attributes of his character. Sec- 
ond^ the circii^mstances^ under which the miracle was per- 
formed, must have been such as to leave no chances for 
deception. It must have been in public and subject to the 
inspection of those, who could not easily be duped — who 
would be more disposed to doubt and reject, than to believe 
and accept- Third and lastly, he must show that the object 
to be accomplished was worthy of a miracle, instead of being 
an insignificant matter, unworthy of any, even the most trivial, 
special intervention of Divine Providence. 

We have confidence in that Divine Constitution of all 
things^ which Is called the Laws of Nature. 



590 IMAGmA'?FOURTH EXERCISS.OTIONS. 

Fourth Exercise. (See page 557.) 

1 . What kind of our Knowledge is soirietimes called Internal ? What 
other name for it ? 

2. How many and what mental faculties are used in its acquisition ? 
What faculty is not used "? 

3. Which must be gained first, the Rational or the Sensuous ? Why "2 

4. Can we have Internal without External Knowledge ? 

5. What kind of knowledge do we get through the use of the senses 1 

6. What kind of knowledge do we get by thinking or reasoning ? 

7. Suppose I say that a quart of water is heavier than a quart of oil, 
and you believe it ; what kind of knowledge is it tO' you ? What kind 
of knowledge is it if you weigh them ? 

8. What is the difference between the theory and the practice of a 
pursuit ? 

9. What is the difference in teaching between telling me how to play 
the game of ball, and showing me how to do it? 

10. Is your knowledge of the city of London personal or derived i 
Why? 

11. Tell some of your derived knowledge. 

12. Tell some of your personal knowledge. 

13. Is your knowledge of yourself personal knowledge ? 

14. Of which kind have you the larger share % 

15. Which is generally the better understood, personal or derived 
knowledge ? 

16. Which is the more useful? 

17. Why do you not obtain all your knowledge personally ? 

18. How rapidly could a single intellect examine and understand 
knowledge, discovered by others ? 

19. Apply the Rules or Laws of Testimony to the following cases ; 

20. A, speaking of himself, declares that he is an honest man ; mus; 
you believe him ? Why ? 

21. What did our Savior say of a man bearing witness of himself! 
(Third Law.) 

22. Suppose that B, who is a warm friend to A, says the same of A, 
that A says of himself, would it be any better testimony ? Would you 
believe him sooner than A ? 

23. Suppose that C who is a bitter enemy to J., says the same; would 
you believe C sooner than either of the others 1 Why ? 

24. Suppose A confesses that he has done wrong, would you believe 
him sooner than you would in the former case '? Suppose B says the 
same of A, would it be better proof than the confession of A ? Sup- 
pose C says it, what then ? 



mental gkowth. 591 

25. Which is tho stronc^er testimony, that which we bear for or against 
ourselves ? 

26. Three persons, equally strangers to you, differ in statements con- 
f^.erning an event, which happened where A resided at the time, through 
which B was passing, and in which C had never been; which would 
you be most inclined to believe ? (Fourth Law.) 

27. Suppose that you afterward found that A was of unsound mind, 
B a liar, and C a wise, honest man ; how would that affect your opin- 
ion? (Second Law.) 

28. Suppose ten men tell you that " the bees in Ireland are as large 
as sheep, and the beehives about the size of ours ;" what would you 
believe 1 (Fifth Law.) 



Mental Growth oh Development. 

1. The mind, like xhe body, requires growth or a 
general development of its powers, before attempting 
to gain Abstract and Scientific Knowledge. 

It is sufficient that the infant grows and learns. At first, 
we do not expect it to use its strength and knowledge even 
to take care of itself; but, as time passes, it begins to do 
both, and afterward continues to make progress in devel- 
opment and in usefulness. Yet the first and main object is 
its development. 

In the same manner, a plant must grow to some size be- 
fore it begins to bear fruit. If it bear too soon, either the 
fruit will be poor, cfr the plant itself will be injured. Let the 
tree gain some size and be thrifty, and then we may expect 
it both to grow and to bear fruit in proportion to its growth. 
In short, the great law of being is development or groirth he- 
fore service or reproduction. 

9. The Growth or Development of the simple intel- 
lect is gained by a Prvnary or Freparatory Course. 



592 MEKTAL GBOWTH OE DSYELOPMENT. 

S. This Primary Course begins with Objects^ and 
hence is called the Objective Course. It follows the 
order of nature, or of discovery. It is sometimes call- 
ed the Synthetic, or putting together Course, because 
from the parts it forms the whole of a subject. Some 
times it is called the Inductive Course, because it first 
proves, and then asserts. 

4. The Objective or Synthetic Course supposes the 
learner to be a discovti^rer, and that, following the or- 
der of Nature, he begins with things and facts ; goes 
from these toward the abstract, by the aid oi playthings^ 
models, pictures, &c., to concrete names, principles, 
and rules, with their abbreviations, signs, and symbols. 

If we observe the infant, we see that ; first^ its appetites 
are aroused, and while satisfying them, new sensations are 
felt ; as tasting, feehng, seeing, hearing ; then it begins to at- 
tend, to perceive, and to remember. 

The infant first distinguishes persons ; as parents, brothers, 
and sisters ; second, actions ; as falling, rocking, dandling ; 
third, qualities ; as sweet or sour, warm or cold, &c. ; fourth, 
particular sounds, as belonging to particular things ; and then 
it begins to use words. 

In teaching the names of objects to children at home, we 
are satisfied, that the child knows the use of a term, when it 
can point to the person or object, to which that term belongs. 
This furnishes a valuable hint to teachers in regard to defi- 
nitions. 

5. With beginners the thing defines its name, and 
the name afterward defines the thing. 

The child next begins to imagine by attaching names of 
persons to its playthings and by personifying the various ob- 
jects, by which it is surrounded; then to reason, 2Ci\^ lastly^ 



RULES FOR TEE vSY^THETIC COURSE. 593 

to judge. The desire to exercise these different mental 
powers, is called, Curiosity or a disposition to investigate. 

" In the pleased infant see its power expand. 
When first the coral fills his little hand ; 
Throned in his mother's lap, it dries each tear, 
As her sweet legend falls upon his ear ; 
Next it assails him in his top's strange hum, 
Breathes in his whistle, echoes in his drum ; 
Each gilded toy, that doting love bestows, 
He longs to break and every spring expose." 

6. Rules for a Primary Course. 

First Rule. All those heginning a study are to he 
considered as Primaries, and as requiring a SynthetiG 
or Objective Course hy way of preparation for the 
Higher Course. 

The previous development, which the pupil has gained in 
other studies, will render each succeeding preparatory course 
simpler and shorter than the preceding. 

Second Rule. In a Primary Course^ present the 
thing hefore presenting its term or name^ so that 
every term or name may refer to some thing ^ fact^ 
or principle already familiar. 

By pursuing this course, we shall be sure that the terms 
used will be properly and completely understood by the pu- 
pil. It is both strange and unfortunate, that so many con- 
sider words as the defnitions of words., even when the words 
of the definition are quite as unknown to the pupil, as the 
word defiined. The first effort of the mind in using Ian- 
guage is to find the names of things. 

Many suppose that the difference between a Primary and 
a Higher work is in the size of the books, without regard to 
the arrangement of the matter, which each contains. Others 
suppose that a book, which omits all the terms or, at least, 
the more difficult ones, is a Primary book. These erroneous 
views, and the practices depending on them, come from over- 



594 SECONDARY OR HIGHER COURSE. 

looking the fact, that, although it may be more difficult for a 
child to speak one word than it is to speak another, yet both 
words may be understood with equal ease ; provided that the 
objects named by them are equally objects of sense. 

Thus, a child will learn the use of the terms, elephant, dog, 
hippopotamus, cat, &c., with equal facility ; provided the an- 
imals are before him. He may not be able to speak each 
name with the same ease. But — The use of a word de- 
termines its signification. Hence those, who learn the 
meanings of terms from their uses, are sure to know their 
true meanings or significations. 

Third Rule. The Synthetic Course of any study 
should ~be completed hefore entering ujpon its Analytic 

Course, 

That is, the two should not be mixed in studying the same 
subject. In regard to a given study, the mind is either pri- 
mary or it is developed. If it be primary it needs develop- 
ment, if developed it needs the opportunity to acquire — to 
labor. Again, it may be fully developed in regard to one 
kind of knowledge and yet be entirely undeveloped in re- 
gard to another. In this case the education is said to be un- 
balanced. 



Mental DrrorpiiNE.—IIsE oe Employment. 

i . The developed intellect requires discipline in the 
use of its powers. This is gained by a Secondary or 
Advanced, or Higher Course. 

3. This Secondary Course begins with the Subject, 
ana nence is called the Subjective Course. It is con- 
trary to the order of nature or discovery. It is some- 
times called the Analytic or taking apart Course, be- 
cause it goes from the whole to the parts of a subject. 
Sometimes it is called the Dogrnatic Course, because it 
first asserts, and i\iQ\i proves. 



PRIMARY VERSUS ANALYTIC. 595 

3. Tlic Subjective or Analytic Courso suppost;:- tLe 
learner to have passed through the study as a dis- 
coverer, and while retracing his steps, to be reviewing, 
and re-applying the names, principles, and rules, which 
were gathered in the Primary Course. 

The following comparison shows how completely these 
Primary and Advanced Courses are the complements of each 
other. 

a. The Primary or Preparatory course is Synthetic 
(builds), and is mainly intended for mental growth or devel- 
opment. 

h. The Secondary or Advanced course is Analytic (sepa- 
rates), and is mainly intended for gaining and using knowl- 
edge. 

r. The Synthetic cultivates the mental powers ; the Analytic 
eirvploys those mental powers when cultivated. 

d. In the Synthetic, we teach the terms, principles, and 
rules, as they are derived from things, or from facts, or in the 
concrete. In the Analytic, we first teach the terms, princi- 
ples, and rules themselves, and then how to apply them to 
facts and to things. 

e. Objective or Synthetic Course. 



1. 



CONCRETE SCIENCE. 

\ Things, r Models, f Names or \ Signs or 

\ Facts. 2 J Tictures, „ j Terms, J Symbols, 



IMaps, ■ 1 Abbreviations ' 1 Principles, 

Diagrams. [ or Contractions. y Rules. 

/. Subjective or Analytic Course. 

ABSTRACT SCIENCE. ART. 



Names or f Signs or 

Terms, ^ J Symbols, 

Abbreviations ' 1 Rules, 
or Contractions. [ Principles. 



' Suppositions, i Theones 
Diagrams, 4. < Facts, 
Maps, ( Thinga 

Pictures, 
Models. 



596 art and science. 

Art and Science. 

1. Every human pursuit is an Art. The smaller 
portion of these pursuits have their Sciences devel- 
oped ; while, the larger portion of them have no 
developed Science. What then is Art^ and what is 

Science f 

S* AH^ in its widest sense, includes all operations 
and processes involved in doing whatever is done by 
mankind. In a narrower sense. Art is applied to 
what is done skilfully or expertly. 

Thus, in erecting a building, there must be dig- 
ging, hewing, carrying, etc., and also, planning and 
directing. All these operations are included in the 
Art of building, \i Art be taken in its widest sense ; 
while, in its narrower sense. Art is applied to plan- 
ning and directing only. If, however, the operations 
of hewing, digging, carrying, etc., be done by ma- 
chinery, these operations seem to be considered as an 
Art. 

3. Those, who carry forward the Arts, are called 
Artists^ WorJcmen^ Laborers^ etc., according to an 
indefinite classification having reference to the knowl- 
edge or to the scientific skill exhibited in the per- 
formance of these operations or processes. 

4. Science is classified knowledge or knowledge so 
arranged, set in order, or associated, that it is most 
completely at the command of its possessor, whenever 
he would apply it or use it. 

The person who plans, directs, etc., always 
should be, and, from necessity generally is, familiar 



PRINCIPLES — GENERALIZATION. 597 

■ i'> 

with the Scientific Terms, Principles, and Eules be- 
longing to the pursuit requiring his plans, directions, 
etc. Hence, his part of the pursuit is called a Pro- 
fession. Those who obey his directions, and work 
out his plans, are called Artists^ Worhmen^ etc. 

5. Professional pursuits are divided into two kinds ; 
called, the Learned Professions, and the Mixed Pro- 
fessions. Of these, the Learned Professions were 
formerly three in number ; namely, the Clerical^ the 
Legale and the Medical ; in our times, it is proposed 
to add a fourth^ which we call the Scliolastio Profes- 
sion, or the Profession of Teaching. 

©. The Science of a pursuit consist of two parts ; 
wscm^j ^ jpart firsts \nQXvL^vci.g\i% Nomendature^ Tech- 
nology^ or Terminology J and part second^ including 
its Truths^ which may be stated as Principles^ or as 
Pules. 

li. Nomenclature, Technologyj or Terminology are 
names applied to that part of a Science which in- 
cludes its Names or Terms^ their Definitions and ap- 
plications. 

Note. — The subject of Definitions has been fully given in Chapter 
III. of this work ; hence, it is not necessary to give it here. (See 
Chap. IIL, 12.) 

8. The Truths of a Science are those proposi- 
tions, which state the use of the objects under con- 
sideration ; their divisions or classifications and the 
reasons for each. 

9. The mental operations, involved in perceiving 
and stating the principles of a science, are called 
GeneraMzation. 



598 BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION. 

l©c In dividing or classifying, we must take some 
abstract property of the objects to be classified as the 
Basis of classification. 

Thus, if I have a number of apples, I may divide or clas- 
sify them according to the abstract property, taste ; that is, 
I may take taste as a Basis, This gives the sweet and sour 
kinds or classes. If I take color for the BasiSj I have the 
red, yellow, green, &c,, classes or kinds, 

lie The kind and number of the classes or divis- 
ions depend on the number of differences or distinc- 
tions in the basis of classification. 

ISe These Differences or Distinctions d^TQ of two 
kinds ; the Natural or Real^ and the Conventional, 

IS. Natural or Real Differences exist in the nature 
of the basis. 

If we divide the human race according to the sex, we find 
our basis, sex, involves tioo differences, the male and the fe- 
male. Hence, we must have two classes and, of course, two 
kinds. 

14. Conventional Differences of the basis are those 
differenceSj upon which we must agree. 

Thus, in classifying a number of apples according to differ- 
ences in size, we might easily distinguish the smallest and 
the largest, but might be troubled by the intermediate sizes 
varying so, that each apple would form a class by itself. 
In this case we might agree, that only certain differences 
should be regarded. And since the nitmber of these differ- 
ences is determined by an agreement, we call them Conven- 
tional Differences. 

15. In choosing a Basis of classification, we are in- 
fluenced by the use^ which we intend to make of the 
classes or divisions after thev are formed. 



RULES OF CLASS] FIG ATION. 509 

16. In dividing or classifying;, Uvo R:iii's must be 
observed, one of which refers to the Number and the 
other to the ArrangemeM of the Parts. 

First Rule of Division or Classification. 

The Number of classes must he the same as the 
miinher of Real or Conventional differences in the 
hasis, upon which the division or classification is 
made. This olho determines the Kinds. 

Thus,. in classifying words according to the number of syl- 
lables in each, we may look at the syllables as one or more. 
This gives us two Classes ; Monosyllables and Polysyl- 
lables. Or we may view them as havir.g one, two, three, 
&c., syllables. This gives moDosyllables, dissyllables, tri- 
syllables, tetrasyllables, &c., to as many kinds as we have 
different numbers of syllables in our words. 

It is unphilosophical to mix these two classifications, as is 
done when we call words " of four or more syllables. Poly- 
syllables." 

Second Rule of Division or Classification. 

The Divisions or Classes rmist ie so arranged^ that 
the First division m^ay he explained without using 
amy of the others ', and the Second,, without using 
any hut the First. In shorty arrange the classes so 
that each r/iay he explained without using any of 
those., which have not heen explained' already. 

1 7. It is always best to teach the parts or classes in 
that order, in which we have named them. 

18. Useless kinds or classes should never be made. 

As the kinds of fractions called Compound and Complex, 
also Articles, and Adjectives Pronouns. Suc)» divi.-ions em- 
barrass and coTlfl^^'.e the learner without having tlie least 
possible scientific or prdctical use. 



600 PRINCIPLES AND EULES. 

I©. The Rides are directions for using the Princi- 
ples in the arts or in practice. Hence, a Principle in 
science is a Rule in art. 

In classifying substances with reference to the taste^ we 
put all the sour or acid substances into the same class, because 
they agree in taste. 

This class is a result — Jirst^ of a process of abstraction^ 
by which we view a property or quality, called sour or acid., 
a part from the other properties of the objects and also from 
the objects themselves ; second^ of a process of classification.^ 
by which we group or arrange together all the objects, in 
which we perceive the property, called sour or acid. 

Having formed a class, we next proceed to examine it in 
order to find some fact, which is true of every member in the 
class. This is called Generalization, because the fact or 
truth^ which we find, must be true of every individual in the 
class. Suppose that, in examining a class of acids, we find, 
that each one will change the blue color, derived from vege- 
tables, to a re«i; we might then state this fact. as generally 
true of acids, and this General Truth is called a Principle, 
Now, since this Principle belongs to that kind, which we call 
Chemical, we call the Statement of the fact, that, Acids 
change vegetable blue to red, a Principle in the science of 
Chemistry. 

If we wish to change this Principle in the Science to a 
Rule in the Art of Chemistry, we state the Fact in the form 
of a Direction, which is called a Rule,; thus, "To change a 
vegetable blue to red, apply an acid." 

1. {Principle.) The value of a fraction depends on the 
ratio of the denominator and the numerator. 

2. {Ride.) To multiply the value of a fraction, multiply 
the numerator or divide the denominator. 

3. {Principle.) " Ice, taken in moderate quantity, is a 
tonic, and serves to keep the system in such a healthy condi- 
tion, that food gives i^ more str ^ngth ;" therefore, {Rule) 



FIFTH FXFRriPF. 601 

*' Every humane mm\ and eveiy farmer should have an ice- 
house." 

4. {Princrple.) " Clean books look much tlie best," there- 
fore, {Rule) " We should not let our books be torn, nor allow 
the leaves to be turned down at the edge." 

Not only should pupils be required to give clear and in- 
telligible rules for such operations as they perform, but great 
pains should be taken to know, that they understand the 
principles, upon which the rules are founded. 



Fifth Exercise. (See page 557.) 



1. Should a young colt be required to work enough daily to pay for his 
keeping 1 How else can he repay it ? 

2. What do we expect of stalks before they begin to bear grain? 

3. How ought we to regard the growth or development of the mind? 

4. Does a child learn that falling causes pain by being told that it 
will, or by falling ? 

5. Name the mental processes as they first appear in infants, 

6. What does Synthetic mean? — Analytic^ What is tYiQ Synthetic 
Course 9 — the Analytic f 

7. How do the Synthetic and Analytic Courses compare with each 
other ? For what is each to be used ? 

8. Is house-building an Analytic or a Synthetic process? — pulUng 
a house down ? 

9. Of what does the Secondary or Higher Course consist ? 

10. If you show something to a person, who does not understand 
English, and at the same time speak an English word, what will he 
think the word means ? 

How would you tell a person the meaning of the word, stone, if the 
person did not understand English ? — liat ? — eye ? — book ? 

1 1 . How do infants learn the meanings of words ? 

12. Could you tell the meaning of an English word, without show- 
ing the thing, which it named, to one who understands English? 

13. Suppose I say that the Rhinconella resembles the Khinconeta, 
would it li've yon an idea of tlie former? 

14. Cr,;iv-i,-< l!ij i'oi'owing Detiidtions. 

26 '" 



602 FIFTH EXERCISE. 

a. Addition is the aggregation of the individualities composing an 
entirety. 

h. Addition is addition. 

c. Addition is making several numbers into a single number. 

d. All horses are quadrupeds. 

e. All quadrupeds are horses. 

f. " Subtraction is taking a less number from a gr eater. ^^ 

g. All kinds of apples are fruit. 
h. All kinds of fruit are apples. 

16. When objects are divided into large, middling-sized, and small, 
what is the basis of classification? — torrid, temperate, and frigid? 
— long, short ? — high, low ? 

17. Of what kind is the difference between | and ■}§? f and | ? 
Which would you prefer, to be the President of the United States or 
to be the Chief Executive officer of the United States ? 

18. Give the Rules of Classification. 

If we have four natural differences in a basis, how many classes must 
we have ? 

Suppose on the same basis we agree to have but three classes, are 
our differences natural or conventional ? Why ? 

19. If we have arranged the parts of a subject in six cases, may we 
use case Jifth to help explain case third? Why? — Case first, to ex- 
plain case second ? Why ? 

20. In what order should we name the parts of a subject ? — s<-udy or 
teach the parts ? 



gp:neral remarks. 603 



GENERAL REMARKS. 

If we divide or classify mankind according to development^ 
we have three kinds or classes. 

First. Those, who have hands ; — who can work and only 
know how to work according to the orders of others. 

This kind are mere machines. They are valuable only 
because they can work when and as another bids them. If 
you cut off their hands they are utterly spoiled and worth- 
less. A brute, in the same predicament, would still have 
some value ; these have none. Machine men. 

The Second kind are those, who have hands and heads ; 
or those, who can work, and know why they work, and how 
to work. 

This kind are superior to machines, and to brutes, and 
also to the first kind. They can labor, they have the praC' 
tical skill; they know why they labor and how to labor. 
They understand the science of that, wherein they toil. But 
even these come short of manhood. They fail in the great 
end of human existence. They are simply motor-machine 
men. 

The Third kind are those, who have hands, heads, and 
hearts ; who can work, and know why they work, and how to 
work ; who will and do work '' for pulling down" whatever is 
evil and wrong, and " for building up" whatever is good and 
desirable for the human race. 

These, really, are human beings. They toil — the hand is 
trained. They know why and how — the head does its part. 
They seek to promote the welfare of their fellow-men. The 
heart is interested and is right. They are men — "Living 
souls." 

If we would be like them, our knowledge should be thor- 
oughly useful or practical, thoroughly scientific, thoroughly 
social or benevolent, and thoroughly moral or pious. 

Now, the great medium or means, through which knowl- 



604 GENERAL REMARKS. 

edge is obtained, perfected, and used, is language ; not lan- 
guage consisting of mere words, as it is found in spelling- 
books, and dictionaries, but Language used as the medium 
of Knowledge or the vehicle of thoughts, and hence called 
Sentential or Thought-Language, It is language as it is 
used by those, who entertain, persuade, and instruct ; the ora- 
tor, the poet, the historian, the philosopher. The medium 
of communication alike when " we commune vnth our own 
hearts/' and when " in the still, small voice," the Creator holds 
communion with man, the creature. 

The ability to use language orally and in writing for the 
communication of thoughts, affections and desires distinguishes 
the human race from all others. By its aid, man gathers the 
histories of the Past and the Present — garners the wisdom 
of ages ; so that the sciences of centuries become the starting 
point for the student of to-day — preserves the institutions of 
the race — presents new plans and new improvements of old 
plans for the further progress and development of mankind. 
Without it, where are the hopes of human progress — the 
hopes of the Apostle, the Prophet, the Teacher ? With it, 
where are the limits to man's progress in the knowledge of 
his relations to himself, to his fellow-man, and to his Maker? 
No other science presents such varied inducements to study, 
nor so well rewards its votaries. 



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